Judgment of 9 February 2022

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116-20220209-JUD-01-00-EN
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Date of the Document
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Bilingual Document File

9 FÉVRIER 2022 ARRÊT ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES SUR LE TERRITOIRE DU CONGO (RÉPUBLIQUE DÉMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. OUGANDA) ___________ ARMED ACTIVITIES ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO (DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. UGANDA) 9 FEBRUARY 2022 JUDGMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS Paragraphs CHRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-47 I. INTRODUCTION 48-59 II. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 60-131 A. Context 61-68 B. The principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations in the present case 69-110 1. The principles and rules applicable to the different situations that arose during the conflict 73-84 (a) In Ituri 74-79 (b) Outside Ituri 80-84 2. The causal nexus between the internationally wrongful acts and the injury suffered 85-98 3. The nature, form and amount of reparation 99-110 C. Questions of proof 111-126 1. The burden of proof 115-119 2. The standard of proof and degree of certainty 120-126 D. The forms of damage subject to reparation 127-131 III. COMPENSATION CLAIMED BY THE DRC 132-384 A. Damage to persons 133-226 1. Loss of life 135-166 2. Injuries to persons 167-181 3. Rape and sexual violence 182-193 4. Recruitment and deployment of child soldiers 194-206 5. Displacement of populations 207-225 6. Conclusion 226 B. Damage to property 227-258 1. General aspects 240-242 2. Ituri 243-249 3. Outside Ituri 250-253 4. Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL) 254-255 5. Military property 256 6. Conclusion 257-258 - ii - C. Damage related to natural resources 259-366 1. General aspects 273-281 2. Minerals 282-327 (a) Gold 282-298 (b) Diamonds 299-310 (c) Coltan 311-322 (d) Tin and tungsten 323-327 3. Flora 328-350 (a) Coffee 328-332 (b) Timber 333-344 (c) Environmental damage resulting from deforestation 345-350 4. Fauna 351-363 5. Conclusion 364-366 D. Macroeconomic damage 367-384 IV. SATISFACTION 385-392 V. OTHER REQUESTS 393-404 A. Costs 394-396 B. Pre-judgment and post-judgment interest 397-402 C. Request that the Court remain seised of the case 403-404 VI. TOTAL SUM AWARDED 405-408 OPERATIVE CLAUSE 409 ___________ - iii - ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND SHORT FORMS ACLED Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project ADRASS Association pour le développement de la recherche appliquée en sciences sociales (Association for the Development of Applied Research in Social Sciences) ALC Armée de libération du Congo (Congo Liberation Army) Collier and Hoeffler assessment Assessment prepared by Mr. Paul Collier and Ms Anke Hoeffler, at the request of Uganda, on a study carried out in 2016, at the request of the DRC, estimating the macroeconomic damage caused by the 1998-2003 war Congolese Commission of Inquiry Expert Commission established by the Congolese Government in 2008 to identify the victims and assess the damage they suffered as a result of Uganda’s unlawful armed activities DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo EECC Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission FRPI Forces de résistance patriotique en Ituri (Patriotic Resistance Force in Ituri) HRW Human Rights Watch ICC International Criminal Court ICCN Institut congolais pour la conservation de la nature (Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation) ILC International Law Commission ILC Articles on State Responsibility The International Law Commission’s Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts Inter-Agency Report Report of the (United Nations) inter-agency assessment mission to Kisangani IRC International Rescue Committee Kinshasa study Study carried out in 2016, at the request of the DRC, by two experts from the University of Kinshasa to estimate the macroeconomic damage caused by the 1998-2003 war Mapping Report Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003, published in 2010 by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights MLC Mouvement de libération du Congo (Congo Liberation Movement) - iv - MONUC Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en République démocratique du Congo (United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo) Porter Commission Report Final report of the Judicial Commission of Inquiry into Allegations into Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2001 (November 2002) SNEL Société nationale d’électricité (National Electricity Company) UBOS Ugandan Bureau of Statistics UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Program UNCC United Nations Compensation Commission UNPE United Nations Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo UPC Union des patriotes congolais (Union of Congolese Patriots) UPDF Uganda Peoples’ Defence Forces 2005 Judgment Judgment of the Court on the merits in the case concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 168) ___________ INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE YEAR 2022 2022 9 February General List No. 116 9 February 2022 ARMED ACTIVITIES ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO (DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. UGANDA) REPARATIONS Determination of the amount of reparation by the Court following failure by the Parties to settle this question by agreement — 2005 Judgment and elements on which it was based. * Context. Case concerning one of the most complex and deadliest armed conflicts on the African continent — Numerous actors involved in conflict, including armed forces of various States and irregular forces — Violation of fundamental principles and rules of international law — Difficulty of establishing the course of events due to the passage of time. * * Principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations. - 2 - Article 31 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility — Status of Ituri as an occupied territory and duty of vigilance of Uganda — For Uganda to establish that a particular injury in Ituri was not caused by failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power — No reparation for damage caused by rebel groups outside Ituri since they were not under Uganda’s control — Reparation for damage caused by Uganda’s unlawful support of armed groups. * Causal nexus. Must be sufficiently direct and certain — May vary depending on the primary rule violated and nature and extent of the injury — Difficulties of establishing causal nexus in case of damage resulting from war and in case of concurrent causes or multiple actors — Importance of distinguishing between Ituri and other areas when analysing causal nexus. * Nature, form and amount of reparation. Obligation to make full reparation — Compensatory nature of reparation — Intended to benefit all those who suffered injury — Absence of adequate evidence of extent of material damage does not necessarily preclude award of compensation — Court may, on an exceptional basis, award compensation in the form of a global sum where the evidence leaves no doubt that an internationally wrongful act has caused a substantial injury, but does not allow a precise evaluation of the extent or scale of such injury — Less rigorous standards of proof adopted by judicial or other bodies in proceedings with large numbers of victims who have suffered serious injury in situations of armed conflict and, in this context, levels of compensation reduced in order to account for lower standard of proof — Question whether account should be taken of financial burden imposed on responsible State. * Questions of proof. Court may form an appreciation of extent of damage without specific information about each victim or property affected. - 3 - Burden of proof — Party alleging a fact generally bears burden of proof — Rule must be applied flexibly in situations where respondent may be in better position to establish certain facts — Burden of proof varies depending on subject-matter and nature of dispute — It is for the Court to evaluate all evidence produced by the Parties — In occupied Ituri, it is for Uganda to establish that a given injury was not caused by its failure to meet its obligations as occupying Power — In other areas, litigant seeking to establish a fact generally bears burden of proof. Standard of proof — May vary from case to case and may depend on gravity of acts alleged — Question of weight to be given to different kinds of evidence — Practice of international bodies that have addressed reparation for mass violations in context of armed conflict — Standard of proof at merits phase higher than at phase on reparation — Evidence in case file often insufficient to reach precise determination of amount of compensation due — Court must take account of investigative reports, in particular those from United Nations organs — Porter Commission Report — Mapping Report — Reports by Court-appointed experts. * Forms of damage subject to reparation. 2005 Judgment determined Uganda’s obligation to repair — Court’s task at present stage is to rule on nature and amount of reparation owed — Claims for reparation must fall within scope of prior findings on liability. * * Compensation claimed be the DRC. Damage to persons. Loss of life — On the basis of evidence reviewed, Court’s conclusion that neither the materials presented by the DRC, nor the reports provided by the Court-appointed experts or prepared by United Nations bodies are sufficient to determine a precise or even approximate number of civilian deaths for which Uganda owes reparation — Evidence presented to Court suggests number of deaths attributable to Uganda falls in range of 10,000 to 15,000 persons — Valuation — Court will award compensation for loss of civilian lives as part of global sum for all damage to persons. Injuries to persons — On the basis of evidence, Court is unable to determine an approximate estimate of number of civilians injured — Available evidence confirms occurrence of significant number of injuries in many localities — Valuation — Court will award compensation for personal injuries as part of global sum for all damage to persons. - 4 - Rape and sexual violence — Sexual violence is frequently underreported and difficult to document — Impossible to derive even broad estimate of number of victims from the available evidence — Rape and other forms of sexual violence committed on large and widespread scale — Valuation — Court will award compensation for rape and sexual violence as part of global sum for all damage to persons. Recruitment and deployment of child soldiers — Limited evidence supporting DRC’s claims regarding number of child soldiers — Various indications confirm that a significant number of children were recruited or deployed as child soldiers in Ituri — Claim not limited to Ituri — Valuation — Court will award compensation for recruitment and deployment of child soldiers as part of global sum for all damage to persons. Displacement of populations — Evidence presented does not establish a sufficiently certain number of displaced persons for whom compensation could be awarded separately —Uganda owes reparations in relation to significant number of displaced persons — Displacements in Ituri alone appear to have been in range of 100,000 to 500,000 persons — Valuation — Court will award compensation for displacement of persons as part of global sum for all damage to persons. Global sum of US$225,000,000 awarded for loss of life and other damage to persons. * Damage to property. Ituri — Evidence presented does not permit even to approximate extent of damage — Report of Court-appointed expert does not provide any relevant additional information — Mapping Report and other United Nations reports establish convincing record of large-scale pillaging in Ituri — Valuation. Outside Ituri — Insufficient evidence regarding which damage to property was caused by Uganda — Evidence presented does not permit even to approximate extent of damage — Report of Court-appointed expert does not provide any relevant additional information — Valuation — Account taken of available evidence in arriving at global sum for all damage to property. Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL) — Given Government’s close relationship with SNEL, DRC could have been expected to provide evidence substantiating its claim — DRC has not discharged its burden of proof regarding claim for damage to SNEL. Military property — Given direct authority of Government over its armed forces, DRC can be expected to substantiate its claims more fully — Claim dismissed for lack of evidence. - 5 - Global sum of US$40,000,000 awarded for damage to property. * Damage related to natural resources. Outside Ituri, Uganda owes reparation for damage related to natural resources where UPDF involved — In Ituri, Uganda owes reparation for all acts of looting, plundering or exploitation of natural resources — Methodological approach of Court-appointed expert is convincing — Value extracted by civilians from natural resources in Ituri. Minerals — Uganda responsible for damage resulting from looting, plundering and exploitation of gold, diamonds and coltan — Methodological approach taken by the Court-appointed expert is convincing overall — Court to award compensation for gold, diamonds and coltan as part of global sum for damage to natural resources — Given limited evidence relating to tin and tungsten, these two minerals not taken into account in determining compensation. Flora — Inclusion of coffee in expert report permissible — Uganda owes reparation for looting, plundering and exploitation of timber — Expert calculations based on rougher estimates than with gold — Amount of compensation at level lower than expert’s estimate — Court to award compensation for coffee and timber as part of global sum for damage to natural resources — DRC did not provide Court any basis for assessing damage to environment through deforestation — Claim for damage resulting from deforestation dismissed for lack of evidence. Fauna — Uganda liable to make reparation for damage in part of Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Virunga National Park in Ituri, where it was occupying Power — Court to take damage to fauna into account when awarding global sum for damage to natural resources. Global sum of US$60,000,000 awarded for damage to natural resources. * Macroeconomic damage. DRC has not demonstrated sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the conduct of Uganda and alleged macroeconomic damage — DRC has not provided a basis for arriving at even rough estimate of possible macroeconomic damage — Claim rejected. * * - 6 - Satisfaction. Request relating to conduct of criminal investigations or prosecutions — No need for the Court to order any additional specific measure of satisfaction — Request to order payment for creation of fund to promote reconciliation between Hema and Lendu in Ituri — Material damage caused by ethnic conflicts in Ituri already covered by compensation awarded for damage to persons and property — Request to order payment for non-material harm — No basis for such request as non-material harm is already included in the claims for compensation for different forms of damage. * * Other requests. No sufficient reason that would justify departing from the general rule in Article 64 of the Statute — No need to award pre-judgment interest — Post-judgment interest of 6 per cent will accrue on any overdue amount — No reason for the Court to remain seised of the case. * * Total sum of US$325,000,000 awarded — Sum to be paid in five annual instalments of US$65,000,000 — Court satisfied that total sum and terms of payment remain within capacity of Uganda to pay; therefore no need to consider the question whether account should be taken of financial burden imposed on responsible State. JUDGMENT Present: President DONOGHUE; Vice-President GEVORGIAN; Judges TOMKA, ABRAHAM, BENNOUNA, YUSUF, XUE, SEBUTINDE, BHANDARI, ROBINSON, SALAM, IWASAWA, NOLTE; Judge ad hoc DAUDET; Registrar GAUTIER. In the case concerning armed activities on the territory of the Congo, between the Democratic Republic of the Congo, represented by - 7 - H.E. Mr. Bernard Takaishe Ngumbi, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Justice, Keeper of the Seals a.i., as Head of Delegation; H.E. Mr. Paul-Crispin Kakhozi, Ambassador of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the European Union, as Agent; Mr. Ivon Mingashang, member of the Brussels and Kinshasa/Gombe Bars, Professor and Head of the Department of Public International Law and International Relations at the Faculty of Law, University of Kinshasa, as Co-Agent and Legal Counsel; Ms Monique Chemillier-Gendreau, Emeritus Professor of Public Law and Political Science at the University Paris Diderot, Mr. Mathias Forteau, Professor of Public Law at the University Paris Nanterre, Mr. Pierre Bodeau-Livinec, Professor of Public Law at the University Paris Nanterre, Ms Muriel Ubéda-Saillard, Professor of Public Law at the University of Lille, Ms Raphaëlle Nollez-Goldbach, Director of Studies in Law and Public Administration at the Ecole normale supérieure, Paris, in charge of research at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), Mr. Pierre Klein, Professor of International Law at the Université libre de Bruxelles, Mr. Nicolas Angelet, member of the Brussels Bar and Professor of International Law at the Université libre de Bruxelles, Mr. Olivier Corten, Professor of International Law at the Université libre de Bruxelles, Mr. Auguste Mampuya Kanunk’a-Tshiabo, Emeritus Professor of International Law at the University of Kinshasa, Mr. Jean-Paul Segihobe Bigira, Professor of International Law at the University of Kinshasa and member of the Kinshasa/Gombe Bar, Mr. Philippe Sands, QC, Professor of International Law, University College London, Barrister, Matrix Chambers, London, Ms Michelle Butler, Barrister, Matrix Chambers, London, as Counsel and Advocates; Mr. Jacques Mbokani Bateghana, Doctor of Law of the Université catholique de Louvain and Professor of International Law at the University of Goma, - 8 - Mr. Paul Clark, Barrister, Garden Court Chambers, London, as Counsel; Mr. François Habiyaremye Muhashy Kayagwe, Professor at the University of Goma, Mr. Justin Okana Nsiawi Lebun, Professor of Economics at the University of Kinshasa, Mr. Pierre Ebbe Monga, Legal Counsel at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ms Nicole Ntumba Bwatshia, Professor of International Law at the University of Kinshasa and Principal Adviser to the President of the Republic in Legal and Administrative Matters, Mr. Andrew Maclay, Managing Director, Secretariat International, London, as Advisers; Mr. Sylvain Lumu Mbaya, PhD student in international law at the University of Bordeaux and the University of Kinshasa, and member of the Kinshasa/Matete Bar (Eureka Law Firm SCPA), Mr. Jean-Paul Mwanza Kambongo, Lecturer at the University of Kinshasa and member of the Kinshasa/Gombe Bar (Eureka Law Firm SCPA), Mr. Jean-Jacques Tshiamala wa Tshiamala, member of the Kongo Central Bar (Eureka Law Firm SCPA) and Lecturer in International Law at the Centre de recherche en sciences humaines in Kinshasa, Ms Blandine Merveille Mingashang, member of the Kinshasa/Matete Bar (Eureka Law Firm SCPA) and Lecturer in International Law at the Centre de recherche en sciences humaines in Kinshasa, Mr. Glodie Kinsemi Malambu, member of the Kongo Central Bar and Lecturer in International Law at the Centre de recherche en sciences humaines in Kinshasa, Ms Espérance Mujinga Mutombo, member of the Kinshasa/Matete Bar (Eureka Law Firm SCPA) and Lecturer in International Law at the Centre de recherche en sciences humaines in Kinshasa, Mr. Trésor Lungungu Kidimba, PhD student in international law and Lecturer at the University of Kinshasa, member of the Kinshasa/Gombe Bar, Mr. Amani Cirimwami Ezéchiel, Research Fellow at the Max Planck Institute Luxembourg for Procedural Law and PhD student at the Université catholique de Louvain and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Mr. Stefano D’Aloia, PhD student at the Université libre de Bruxelles, Ms Marta Duch Gimenéz, Lecturer at the Université catholique de Louvain, as Assistants, - 9 - and the Republic of Uganda, represented by The Hon. William Byaruhanga, SC, Attorney General of the Republic of Uganda, as Agent (until 4 February 2022); The Hon. Kiryowa Kiwanuka, Attorney General of the Republic of Uganda, as Agent (from 4 February 2022); H.E. Ms Mirjam Blaak Sow, Ambassador of the Republic of Uganda to the Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the European Union, as Deputy Agent; Mr. Francis Atoke, Solicitor General, Mr. Christopher Gashirabake, Deputy Solicitor General, Ms Christine Kaahwa, acting Director Civil Litigation, Mr. John Bosco Rujagaata Suuza, Commissioner Contracts and Negotiations, Mr. Jeffrey Ian Atwine, Principal State Attorney, Mr. Richard Adrole, Principal State Attorney, Mr. Fadhil Mawanda, Principal State Attorney, Mr. Geoffrey Wangolo Madete, Senior State Attorney, Mr. Alex Byaruhanga, Senior State Attorney, as Counsel; Mr. Dapo Akande, Professor of Public International Law, University of Oxford, Essex Court Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Pierre d’Argent, Professor of International Law at the Université catholique de Louvain, member of the Institut de droit international, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Brussels Bar, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the United States Supreme Court, the District of Columbia and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mr. Sean Murphy, Manatt/Ahn Professor of International Law, The George Washington University Law School, member of the Bar of Virginia, - 10 - Mr. Yuri Parkhomenko, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bar of the District of Columbia, Mr. Alain Pellet, Emeritus Professor of the University Paris Nanterre, former Chairman of the International Law Commission, member of the Institut de droit international, as Counsel and Advocates; Ms Rebecca Gerome, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the District of Columbia and New York, Mr. Peter Tzeng, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the District of Columbia and New York, Mr. Benjamin Salas Kantor, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bar of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Chile, Mr. Ysam Soualhi, Researcher, Centre Jean Bodin, University of Angers, as Counsel; H.E. Mr. Arthur Sewankambo Kafeero, acting Director, Regional and International Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Col. Timothy Nabaasa Kanyogonya, Director of Legal Affairs, Chieftaincy of Military Intelligence  Uganda Peoples’ Defence Forces, Ministry of Defence, as Advisers, THE COURT, composed as above, after deliberation, delivers the following Judgment: 1. On 23 June 1999, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter the “DRC”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against the Republic of Uganda (hereinafter “Uganda”) in respect of a dispute concerning “acts of armed aggression perpetrated by Uganda on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter and of the Charter of the Organization of African Unity” (emphasis in the original). In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court, the Application relied on the declarations made by the two Parties accepting the Court’s compulsory jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court. 2. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of the Parties at the time of the filing of the Application, each Party availed itself of its right under Article 31 of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. The DRC first chose Mr. Joe Verhoeven, who resigned on 15 May 2019, and then Mr. Yves Daudet. Uganda chose Mr. James L. Kateka. Following the election to the Court, with effect from 6 February 2012, of Ms Julia Sebutinde, a Ugandan national, Mr. Kateka ceased to sit as judge ad hoc in the case, in accordance with Article 35, paragraph 6, of the Rules of Court. - 11 - 3. By an Order of 21 October 1999, the Court fixed 21 July 2000 and 21 April 2001, respectively, as the time-limits for the filing of the Memorial of the DRC and the Counter-Memorial of Uganda. Those pleadings were filed within the time-limits thus prescribed. 4. Uganda’s Counter-Memorial included counter-claims. By an Order of 29 November 2001, the Court found that two of the three counter-claims submitted by Uganda were admissible as such and formed part of the proceedings on the merits. By the same Order, the Court directed the submission of a Reply by the DRC and a Rejoinder by Uganda. By an Order of 29 January 2003, it authorized the submission of an additional pleading by the DRC relating solely to the counter-claims. Those pleadings were filed within the time-limits fixed by the Court. 5. Public hearings were held on the merits of the case from 11 to 29 April 2005. 6. In its Judgment dated 19 December 2005 (hereinafter the “2005 Judgment”), the Court found, inter alia, with respect to the claims brought by the DRC, that “the Republic of Uganda, by engaging in military activities against the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the latter’s territory, by occupying Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic, economic and financial support to irregular forces having operated on the territory of the DRC, violated the principle of non-use of force in international relations and the principle of non-intervention” (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (1) of the operative part); “the Republic of Uganda, by the conduct of its armed forces, which committed acts of killing, torture and other forms of inhumane treatment of the Congolese civilian population, destroyed villages and civilian buildings, failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets and to protect the civilian population in fighting with other combatants, trained child soldiers, incited ethnic conflict and failed to take measures to put an end to such conflict; as well as by its failure, as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri district, violated its obligations under international human rights law and international humanitarian law” (ibid., p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part); and “the Republic of Uganda, by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural resources committed by members of the Ugandan armed forces in the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and by its failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri district to prevent acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural resources, violated obligations owed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo under international law” (ibid., pp. 280-281, para. 345, subpara. (4) of the operative part). With respect to these violations, the Court found that Uganda was under an obligation to make reparation to the DRC for the injury caused (ibid., p. 281, para. 345, subpara. (5) of the operative part). - 12 - 7. In relation to the counter-claims presented by Uganda, the Court found that “the Democratic Republic of the Congo, by the conduct of its armed forces, which attacked the Ugandan Embassy in Kinshasa, maltreated Ugandan diplomats and other individuals on the Embassy premises, maltreated Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili International Airport, as well as by its failure to provide the Ugandan Embassy and Ugandan diplomats with effective protection and by its failure to prevent archives and Ugandan property from being seized from the premises of the Ugandan Embassy, violated obligations owed to the Republic of Uganda under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 282, para. 345, subpara. (12) of the operative part). With respect to these violations, the Court found that the DRC was under an obligation to make reparation to Uganda for the injury caused (ibid., p. 282, para. 345, subpara. (13) of the operative part). 8. The Court further decided in its 2005 Judgment that, failing agreement between the Parties, the question of reparations due would be settled by the Court (ibid., pp. 281-282, para. 345, subparas. (6) and (14) of the operative part). 9. By letters dated 26 January and 3 July 2009, the Registrar asked the Parties to provide information concerning any negotiations they might be holding for the purpose of settling the question of reparations. Information was received from the DRC by a letter dated 6 July 2009 and from Uganda by a letter dated 18 July 2009. In particular, Uganda referred to an agreement concluded by the Parties at Ngurdoto (Tanzania) on 8 September 2007, which established a framework for an amicable settlement of the question of reparations. 10. Between 2009 and 2015, the Parties continued to keep the Court informed about the status of their negotiations. They held various meetings, including four at the ministerial level. At the end of the fourth and final ministerial meeting, held in Pretoria, South Africa, from 17 to 19 March 2015, the Parties acknowledged that they had been unable to agree on the principles and modalities to be applied in order to determine the amount of reparation due. Given the lack of consensus at the ministerial level, the matter was referred to the Heads of State for further guidance, within the framework of the Ngurdoto Agreement. 11. On 13 May 2015, the DRC submitted to the Court a document dated 8 May 2015 and entitled “New Application to the International Court of Justice”, in which its Government stated in particular that “the negotiations on the question of reparation owed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo by Uganda must now be deemed to have failed, as is made clear in the joint communiqué signed by both Parties in Pretoria, South Africa, on 19 March 2015; it therefore behoves the Court, as provided for in paragraph 345 (6) of the Judgment of 19 December 2005, to reopen the proceedings that it suspended in the case, in order to determine the amount of reparation owed by Uganda to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the basis of the evidence already transmitted to Uganda and which will be made available to the Court”. - 13 - 12. At a meeting held by the President of the Court with the representatives of the Parties on 9 June 2015, pursuant to Article 31 of the Rules, the Co-Agent of the DRC, after outlining the history of the negotiations held by the Parties with a view to reaching an amicable settlement on the question of reparations, stated that his Government was of the view that the said negotiations had failed and that it was because of that failure that the DRC had decided to seise the Court again. At the same meeting, the Agent of Uganda indicated that his Government was of the view that the conditions for referring the question of reparations to the Court had not been met and that the request made by the DRC in the Application filed on 13 May 2015 was therefore premature. 13. During the meeting of 9 June 2015, the President ascertained the views of the Parties on how much time they would need for the preparation of the written pleadings on the question of reparations, should the Court decide to authorize such pleadings. The Co-Agent of the DRC stated that a time-limit of three and a half to four months would be sufficient for his Government to prepare its Memorial. The Agent of Uganda, citing the highly complex nature of the questions to be decided, mentioned a time-limit of 18 months from the filing of the DRC’s Memorial for the preparation of a Counter-Memorial by his Government. 14. By an Order of 1 July 2015, the Court decided to resume the proceedings in the case with respect to the question of reparations. It fixed 6 January 2016 as the time-limit for the filing of a Memorial by the DRC on the reparations which it considers to be owed to it by Uganda, and for the filing of a Memorial by Uganda on the reparations which it considers to be owed to it by the DRC. 15. By an Order of 10 December 2015, the President of the Court, at the request of the DRC, extended to 28 April 2016 the time-limit for the filing of the Parties’ Memorials on the question of reparations. Following an additional request from the DRC, by an Order of 11 April 2016, the Court extended that time-limit to 28 September 2016. The Memorials were filed within the time-limit thus extended. 16. By an Order of 6 December 2016, the Court fixed 6 February 2018 as the time-limit for the filing, by each Party, of a Counter-Memorial responding to the claims presented by the other Party in its Memorial. The Counter-Memorials of the Parties were filed within the time-limit thus fixed. 17. By letters dated 11 June 2018, the Registrar informed the Parties that, pursuant to Article 62, paragraph 1, of its Rules, the Court wished to obtain further information on certain issues it had identified. A list of questions was attached to the Registrar’s letter and the Parties were asked to provide their responses to those questions by 11 September 2018 at the latest. The Parties were further informed that they would then each have until 11 October 2018 to communicate any comments they might wish to make on the responses of the other Party. Those time-limits were subsequently extended at the request of the Parties. Both Parties filed their responses on 1 November 2018. The DRC, however, transmitted reorganized versions of its responses on 12 and 20 November 2018, in view of certain problems with the annexes that had been submitted. By a letter dated 24 November 2018, the DRC indicated that the document filed on 20 November 2018 constituted the “final version” of its responses. The DRC then submitted comments on Uganda’s responses on 4 January 2019, and Uganda submitted comments on the DRC’s responses on 7 January 2019. - 14 - 18. By letters dated 4 September 2018, the Parties were informed that the hearings on the question of reparations would take place from 18 to 22 March 2019. By a letter dated 11 February 2019, the DRC asked the Court to postpone the hearings by some six months. By a letter dated 12 February 2019, Uganda indicated that it neither opposed nor consented to the DRC’s request, and that it was content to commit the matter to the Court’s judgment. By letters dated 27 February 2019, the Parties were notified that the Court had decided to postpone the opening of the hearings to 18 November 2019. 19. By a joint letter dated 9 November 2019 and filed in the Registry on 12 November 2019, the Parties requested that the hearings due to open on 18 November 2019 be postponed for a period of four months “in order to afford [their] countries a further opportunity to attempt to amicably settle the question of reparations by bilateral agreement”. By letters dated 12 November 2019, the Parties were informed that the Court had decided to postpone the opening of the oral proceedings and that it would determine, at the appropriate time, new dates for the hearings, taking into account the Parties’ request and its own schedule of work for 2020. 20. By letters dated 9 January 2020, the Registrar indicated to the Parties that the Court would appreciate receiving information from either or both of them on the status of their negotiations. The Court subsequently received several communications from the Parties providing such information. Having regard to those communications and taking into account the fact that the four-month period of negotiations requested by the Parties had lapsed, the Parties were informed, by letters dated 23 April 2020, that the Court intended to hold hearings in the case during the first trimester of 2021. 21. By letters dated 8 July 2020, the Registrar informed the Parties that, while continuing to examine the full range of heads of damage claimed by the Applicant and the defences invoked by the Respondent, the Court considered it necessary to arrange for an expert opinion, pursuant to Article 67, paragraph 1, of its Rules, with respect to the following three heads of damage for the period between 6 August 1998 and 2 June 2003: loss of human life, loss of natural resources and property damage. The Parties were also informed that the Court had fixed 29 July 2020 as the time-limit within which they could present, in accordance with Article 67, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, their respective positions regarding any such appointment, in particular their views on the subject of the expert opinion, the number and mode of appointment of the experts and the procedure to be followed. By the same letter, the Registrar indicated that any comments that either Party might wish to make on the response of the other Party should be communicated by 12 August 2020 at the latest. 22. By a letter dated 15 July 2020, Uganda observed that “the questions before the Court are not of the sort contemplated” under Article 50 of the Statute of the Court and Article 67, paragraph 1, of the Rules relating to the appointment of experts. Therefore, it “strongly object[ed] to the proposal to appoint an expert or experts for the stated purpose because it amounts to relieving the DRC of the primary responsibility to prove her claim (or any particular heads of claim), and assigning that responsibility to third parties, to the prejudice of Uganda and in violation of the relevant principles of international law”. 23. By a letter dated 24 July 2020, the DRC stated that it was “favourably disposed towards the Court’s proposal that, for the three heads of damage referred to [in the Registrar’s letter of 8 July 2020], there should be recourse to an expert opinion”. It added that recourse to an expert opinion - 15 - was “without prejudice to the judicial role of the Court” and that it was “ultimately for the Court, and not the experts, to decide on the compensation owed by Uganda to the Democratic Republic of the Congo”. The DRC also transmitted its views on the mode of appointment of the experts and expressed the opinion that the procedure to be followed should correspond to the established practice of the Court. 24. By a letter dated 12 August 2020, Uganda provided its comments on the views expressed by the DRC regarding the expert opinion envisaged by the Court in the case, reiterating its objections to the appointment of experts. It stated that “there is no evidence for the experts to assess or opine on. What remains is for the Court to make the determination as to whether the evidence submitted by the DRC meets the required standard based on its own assessment of the evidence vis-à-vis the applicable principles of international law”. 25. By an Order dated 8 September 2020, having duly taken into account the views of the Parties, the Court decided to arrange for an expert opinion, pursuant to Article 67 of its Rules, regarding certain heads of damage alleged by the Applicant, namely, loss of human life, loss of natural resources and property damage. The Order set out the following terms of reference for the experts: “I. Loss of human life (a) Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the 2005 Judgment, what is the global estimate of the lives lost among the civilian population (broken down by manner of death) due to the armed conflict on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the relevant period? (b) What was, according to the prevailing practice in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in terms of loss of human life during the period in question, the scale of compensation due for the loss of individual human life? II. Loss of natural resources (a) Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the 2005 Judgment, what is the approximate quantity of natural resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber, unlawfully exploited during the occupation by Ugandan armed forces of the district of Ituri in the relevant period? (b) Based on the answer to the question above, what is the valuation of the damage suffered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the unlawful exploitation of natural resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber, during the occupation by Ugandan armed forces of the district of Ituri? (c) Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the 2005 Judgment, what is the approximate quantity of natural resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber, plundered and exploited by Ugandan armed forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, except for the district of Ituri, and what is the valuation of those resources? - 16 - III. Property damage (a) Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the 2005 Judgment, what is the approximate number and type of properties damaged or destroyed by Ugandan armed forces in the relevant period in the district of Ituri and in June 2000 in Kisangani? (b) What is the approximate cost of rebuilding the kind of schools, hospitals and private dwellings destroyed in the district of Ituri and in Kisangani?” 26. By the same Order, the Court decided that the expert opinion would be “entrusted to four independent experts appointed by Order of the Court after hearing the Parties”. It was also noted that, before taking up their duties, the experts would make the following declaration: “I solemnly declare, upon my honour and conscience, that I will perform my duties as expert honourably and faithfully, impartially and conscientiously, and will refrain from divulging or using, outside the Court, any documents or information of a confidential character which may come to my knowledge in the course of the performance of my task.” 27. By letters dated 10 September 2020, the Registrar informed the Parties of the Court’s decision and of the fact that the Court had identified four potential experts to carry out the expert mission, namely, in alphabetical order, Ms Debarati Guha-Sapir, Mr. Michael Nest, Mr. Geoffrey Senogles and Mr. Henrik Urdal, whose curricula vitae were appended to those letters. The Registrar invited the Parties to communicate to the Court any observations they might wish to make on the choice of experts by 18 September 2020 at the latest. 28. By a letter dated 17 September 2020, the DRC indicated that it had no objection to the four experts proposed by the Court. 29. By a letter dated 18 September 2020, Uganda asked the Court, inter alia, to extend the time-limit for its observations on the potential experts identified by the Court. The President of the Court decided to extend that time-limit to 25 September 2020. 30. By a letter dated 25 September 2020, Uganda presented its observations on the experts proposed by the Court, stating that it objected to the selection of three of them on various grounds. 31. By an Order dated 12 October 2020, having duly considered the views of the Parties, the Court decided to appoint the following four experts:  Ms Debarati Guha-Sapir, of Belgian nationality, Professor of Public Health at the University of Louvain (Belgium), Director of the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Brussels (Belgium), member of the Belgian Royal Academy of Medicine; - 17 -  Mr. Michael Nest, of Australian nationality, Environmental Governance Advisor for the European Union’s Accountability, Rule of Law and Anti-corruption Programme in Ghana and former conflict minerals analyst for United States Agency for International Development and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit projects in the Great Lakes Region of Africa;  Mr. Geoffrey Senogles, of British nationality, Partner at Senogles & Co, Chartered Accountants, Nyon (Switzerland); and  Mr. Henrik Urdal, of Norwegian nationality, Research Professor and Director of the Peace Research Institute Oslo (Norway). The experts subsequently made the solemn declaration provided for in the Order of 8 September 2020 (see paragraph 26 above). 32. By letters dated 1 December 2020, the Parties were informed that the Court had fixed 22 February 2021 as the date for the opening of the hearings on the question of reparations. 33. By letters dated 21 December 2020, the Registrar communicated to the Parties copies of the report filed by the experts appointed in the case. Each Party was given until 21 January 2021 to submit any written observations it might wish to make on that report. 34. By letters dated 24 December 2020, the Registrar transmitted to the Parties corrigenda received from the Court-appointed experts to their report. 35. By a letter dated 23 December 2020, Uganda requested that the hearings due to open on 22 February 2021 be postponed to “after 17 March 2021”. By a letter dated 7 January 2021, the DRC indicated that its Government had no objection to the postponement. Taking into account the above-mentioned request and the views expressed by the DRC on this question, the Court decided to postpone to 20 April 2021 the opening of the hearings in the case. 36. By a letter dated 13 January 2021, Uganda requested that the time-limit for the submission to the Court of any observations the Parties might wish to make on the experts’ report, originally fixed for 21 January 2021, be extended to 14 February 2021. By a letter dated 17 January 2021, the DRC indicated that it “c[ould] see no justification for extending the time-limit for the submission by each Party of its written observations on the experts’ report”. By letters dated 18 January 2021, the Registrar informed the Parties that, in view of the fact that, with the agreement of the Parties, the hearings had been postponed to April 2021, the President of the Court had decided to extend to 15 February 2021 the time-limit for the submission, by the Parties, of their observations on the said report. 37. Under cover of a letter dated 14 February 2021, the Co-Agent of the DRC communicated to the Court his Government’s written observations on the experts’ report. Uganda furnished its written observations on the said report on 15 February 2021. Each Party’s observations were communicated to the experts, who responded to them in writing on 1 March 2021; their response was immediately transmitted to the Parties. The latter were asked to indicate to the Registry, by 15 March 2021 at the latest, whether they wished to put questions to the experts at the hearings. - 18 - 38. By a letter dated 6 March 2021, the Co-Agent of the DRC indicated that his Government wished to put questions to the experts at the hearings. 39. By a letter dated 16 March 2021, the Agent of Uganda stated that his Government reserved the right to put questions to the experts at the hearings. By a letter dated 6 April 2021, he indicated that his Government wished to put questions to the experts during the hearings. 40. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the written pleadings on reparations and the documents annexed thereto, the responses of the Parties to the questions put by the Court and the comments on those responses would be made accessible to the public on the opening of the oral proceedings. It subsequently decided to make the experts’ report and related documents accessible to the public. 41. Public hearings on the question of reparations were held from 20 to 30 April 2021. The oral proceedings were conducted in a hybrid format, in accordance with Article 59, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court and on the basis of the Court’s Guidelines for the Parties on the Organization of Hearings by Video Link, adopted on 13 July 2020 and communicated to the Parties on 23 December 2020. Prior to the opening of the hybrid hearings, the Parties were invited to participate in comprehensive technical tests. During the oral proceedings, a number of judges were present in the Great Hall of Justice, while others joined the proceedings via video link, allowing them to view and hear the speaker and see any demonstrative exhibits displayed. Each Party was permitted to have up to four representatives present in the Great Hall of Justice at any one time and was offered the use of an additional room in the Peace Palace from which members of the delegation were able to participate via video link. Members of the delegations were also given the opportunity to participate via video link from other locations of their choice. 42. During the above-mentioned hearings, the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of: For the DRC: H.E. Mr. Paul-Crispin Kakhozi, Ms Monique Chemillier-Gendreau, Ms Muriel Ubéda-Saillard, Ms Raphaëlle Nollez-Goldbach, Mr. Jean-Paul Segihobe Bigira, Mr. Pierre Bodeau-Livinec, Mr. Nicolas Angelet, Mr. Auguste Mampuya Kanunk’a-Tshiabo, Mr. Ivon Mingashang, Mr. Mathias Forteau, Mr. Philippe Sands, Mr. Olivier Corten. For Uganda: The Hon. William Byaruhanga, Mr. Sean Murphy, Mr. Pierre d’Argent, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Mr. Dapo Akande, Mr. Yuri Parkhomenko, Mr. Alain Pellet. - 19 - 43. The experts appointed in the case (see paragraph 31 above) were heard at two public hearings, in accordance with Article 65 of the Rules of Court. Questions were put by counsel of the Parties to each of the experts. Members of the Court put questions to Mr. Urdal and Ms Guha-Sapir. 44. At the hearings, a Member of the Court put a question to the Parties, to which replies were given orally, in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court. * 45. In the written proceedings on the question of reparations, the following submissions were presented by the Parties: On behalf of the Government of the DRC, in the Memorial: “For the reasons set out above, and subject to any changes made to its claims in the course of the proceedings, the Democratic Republic of the Congo requests the Court to adjudge and declare that: (a) Uganda is required to pay the DRC the sum of US$13,478,122,950 (thirteen billion four hundred and seventy-eight million one hundred and twenty-two thousand nine hundred and fifty United States dollars) in compensation for the damage resulting from the violations of international law found by the Court in its Judgment of 19 December 2005; (b) compensatory interest will be due on that amount at a rate of 6 per cent, payable from the date on which the present Memorial was filed; (c) Uganda is required to pay the DRC the sum of US$125 million by way of giving satisfaction for all non-material damage resulting from the violations of international law found by the Court in its Judgment of 19 December 2005; (d) Uganda is required, by way of giving satisfaction, to conduct criminal investigations and prosecutions of the officers and soldiers of the UPDF involved in the violations of international humanitarian law or international human rights norms committed in Congolese territory between 1998 and 2003; (e) in the event of non-payment of the compensation awarded by the Court on the date of the judgment, moratory interest will accrue on the principal sum at a rate to be determined by the Court; (f) Uganda is required to reimburse the DRC for all the costs incurred by the latter in the context of the present case.” - 20 - in the Counter-Memorial: “For the reasons set out above, the Democratic Republic of the Congo requests the Court, without any prejudicial recognition by the Democratic Republic of the Congo of the legal principles set out in the Memorial of Uganda, to adjudge and declare that: (a) the Court’s finding of the DRC’s international responsibility in its Judgment of 19 December 2005 constitutes an appropriate form of reparation for the injury arising from the following wrongful acts as found in that same Judgment: (a) the maltreatment by Congolese forces of individuals on Uganda’s diplomatic premises and of Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili International Airport; (b) the invasion, seizure and long-term occupation of the official residence of the Ambassador of Uganda in Kinshasa; and (c) the seizure of public and personal property from Uganda’s diplomatic premises in Kinshasa; (b) Uganda is entitled to payment of a sum of US$982,797.73 by the DRC, an amount not contested by the DRC in the context of the proceedings before the Court, in compensation for the injury resulting from the invasion, seizure and long-term occupation of Uganda’s Chancery compound in Kinshasa; (c) the compensation thus awarded to Uganda will be offset against that awarded to the DRC on the basis of its principal claims in the present case.” On behalf of the Government of Uganda, in the Memorial: “On the basis of the facts and law set forth in this Memorial, Uganda respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that: (1) With respect to the loss, damage or injury arising from (a) the maltreatment of persons by Congolese forces on Uganda’s diplomatic premises and of Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili Airport; (b) the invasion, seizure and long-term occupation of the residence of the Ambassador of Uganda in Kinshasa; and (c) the seizure of public and personal property from Uganda’s diplomatic premises in Kinshasa, the Court’s formal findings of the DRC’s international responsibility in the 2005 Judgment constitute an appropriate form of satisfaction, providing reparation for the injury suffered. (2) With respect to the loss, damage or injury arising from the invasion, seizure and long-term occupation of Uganda’s Chancery compound in Kinshasa, the DRC is obligated to make monetary compensation to the Republic of Uganda in the total amount of US$982,797.73.” in the Counter-Memorial: “On the basis of the facts and law set forth in this Counter-Memorial, Uganda respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that: (1) the Court’s formal findings of Uganda’s international responsibility in the 2005 Judgment constitute an appropriate form of satisfaction, providing reparation for the injury suffered; - 21 - (2) all other reparation sought by the DRC is denied; and (3) each Party shall bear its own costs of these proceedings.” 46. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties: On behalf of the Government of the DRC, “For the reasons set out in its written pleadings and oral arguments, the Democratic Republic of the Congo requests the Court to adjudge and declare that: (1) With regard to the claims of the Democratic Republic of the Congo: (a) Uganda is required to pay the Democratic Republic of the Congo in compensation for the damage resulting from the violations of international law found by the Court in its Judgment of 19 December 2005:  no less than four billion three hundred and fifty million four hundred and twenty-one thousand eight hundred United States dollars (US$4,350,421,800) for personal injury;  no less than two hundred and thirty-nine million nine hundred and seventy-one thousand nine hundred and seventy United States dollars (US$239,971,970) for damage to property;  no less than one billion forty-three million five hundred and sixty-three thousand eight hundred and nine United States dollars (US$1,043,563,809) for damage to natural resources;  no less than five billion seven hundred and fourteen million seven hundred and seventy-five United States dollars (US$5,714,000,775) for macroeconomic damage. (b) compensatory interest will be due on heads of claim other than those for which the amount of compensation awarded by the Court, based on an overall assessment, already takes account of the passage of time, at a rate of 4 per cent, payable from the date of the filing of the Memorial on reparation; (c) Uganda is required, by way of giving satisfaction, to pay the Democratic Republic of the Congo the sum of US$25 million for the creation of a fund to promote reconciliation between the Hema and Lendu in Ituri, and the sum of US$100 million for the non-material harm suffered by the Congolese State as a result of the violations of international law found by the Court in its Judgment of 19 December 2005; (d) Uganda is required, by way of giving satisfaction, to conduct criminal investigations and prosecutions of the individuals involved in the violations of - 22 - international humanitarian law or international human rights norms committed in Congolese territory between 1998 and 2003 for which Uganda has been found responsible; (e) in the event of non-payment of the compensation awarded by the Court on the date of the judgment, moratory interest will accrue on the principal sum at a rate of 6 per cent; (f) Uganda is required to reimburse the Democratic Republic of the Congo for all the costs incurred by the latter in the context of the present case. (2) With regard to Uganda’s counter-claim, and without any prejudicial recognition by the Democratic Republic of the Congo of the legal principles set out in the Memorial of Uganda: (a) the Court’s finding of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s international responsibility in its Judgment of 19 December 2005 constitutes an appropriate form of reparation for the injury arising from the wrongful acts as found in the same Judgment; (b) Uganda is otherwise entitled to payment of the sum of US$982,797.73 (nine hundred and eighty-two thousand seven hundred and ninety-seven United States dollars and seventy-three cents) by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, an amount not contested by the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the context of the proceedings before the Court, in compensation for the injury resulting from the invasion, seizure and long-term occupation of Uganda’s Chancery compound in Kinshasa; (c) the compensation thus awarded to Uganda will be offset against that awarded to the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the basis of its principal claims in the present case. (3) The Court is further requested to declare that the present dispute will not be fully and finally resolved until Uganda has actually paid the reparations and compensation ordered by the Court. Until that time, the Court will remain seised of the present case.” On behalf of the Government of Uganda, “The Republic of Uganda respectfully requests that the Court: (1) Adjudge and declare that: (a) The DRC is entitled to reparation in the form of compensation only to the extent it has discharged the burden the Court placed on it in paragraph 260 of the 2005 Judgment ‘to demonstrate and prove the exact injury that was suffered as a result of specific actions of Uganda constituting internationally wrongful acts for which it is responsible’; (b) The Court’s finding of Uganda’s international responsibility in the 2005 Judgment otherwise constitutes an appropriate form of satisfaction; and - 23 - (c) Each Party shall bear its own costs of these proceedings; and (2) Reject all other submissions of the DRC.” * 47. At the end of the hearings, the Agent of Uganda informed the Court that his Government “officially waive[d] its counter-claim for reparation for the injury caused by the conduct of the DRC’s armed forces, including attacks on the Ugandan diplomatic premises in Kinshasa and the maltreatment of Ugandan diplomats”. * * * I. INTRODUCTION 48. In view of the failure by the Parties to settle the question of reparations by agreement, it now falls to the Court to determine the nature and amount of reparations to be awarded to the DRC for injury caused by Uganda’s violations of its international obligations, pursuant to the findings of the Court set out in the 2005 Judgment. The Court begins by recalling certain elements on which it based that Judgment. 49. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court first pointed to the “complex and tragic situation which ha[d] long prevailed in the Great Lakes region” and also noted that there had been “much suffering by the local population and destabilization of much of the region”. The Court explained, however, that its task was “to respond, on the basis of international law, to the particular legal dispute brought before it” and that, “[a]s it interpret[ed] and applie[d] the law, it w[ould] be mindful of context, but its task [could] not go beyond that” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 190, para. 26). 50. The Court found, in that Judgment, that Uganda had violated several obligations incumbent on it under international law and that it was therefore under an obligation to make reparation to the DRC for the injury caused (see paragraph 6 above). The Court will recall here only the basic facts and conclusions that led it to hold Uganda internationally responsible. The Court will recall the context and other relevant facts of the case in more detail when setting out certain general considerations with respect to the question of reparations (Part II, Section A, paragraphs 61-68 below) and when addressing the DRC’s claims for various forms of damage (Parts III and IV, paragraphs 132-392 below). - 24 - 51. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that, from mid-1997 to the first half of 1998, Uganda was allowed by the Government of the DRC to engage in military action against anti-Ugandan rebels in the eastern part of Congolese territory. However, the Court concluded that any consent by the DRC to the presence of Ugandan troops on its territory had been withdrawn by 8 August 1998 at the latest. From August 1998 until June 2003, Uganda conducted unlawful military operations in the east of the DRC, as well as in other parts of the country. In so doing, it took control of several locations in the provinces of North Kivu, Orientale and Equateur (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 206-207, paras. 78-81). The Uganda Peoples’ Defence Forces (hereinafter the “UPDF”) conducted military operations in a large number of locations (ibid., p. 224, para. 153), including in Kisangani, where it engaged in large-scale fighting against Rwandan forces, particularly in August 1999 and in May and June 2000 (ibid., p. 207, para. 80). From August 1998 until June 2003, the forces of other States were also present on the DRC’s territory, as were irregular forces, some of which were supported by Uganda. 52. The Court concluded that Uganda was an “occupying Power”, within the meaning of the term as understood in the jus in bello, in Ituri district at the relevant time (ibid., p. 231, para. 178). It found that Uganda’s responsibility was thus engaged both for any acts of its military that violated its international obligations and for any lack of vigilance in preventing violations of human rights and international humanitarian law by other actors present in the occupied territory, including rebel groups acting on their own account (ibid., p. 231, para. 179). The Court also found that Uganda was internationally responsible for acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources committed by members of the UPDF in the territory of the DRC, including in Ituri, and for failing to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri in respect of all acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory (ibid., p. 231, para. 250). 53. The Court further concluded that Uganda, “by engaging in military activities against the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the latter’s territory, by occupying Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic, economic and financial support to irregular forces having operated on the territory of the DRC, violated the principle of non-use of force in international relations and the principle of non-intervention” (ibid., p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (1) of the operative part). 54. The Court found that “massive human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law were committed by the UPDF on the territory of the DRC” during the conflict (ibid., p. 239, para. 207). The Court further found that the UPDF had failed to protect the civilian population and to distinguish between combatants and non-combatants in the course of fighting against other troops (ibid., p. 240, para. 208). It considered that there was persuasive evidence that, in Ituri district, the UPDF had incited ethnic conflicts and taken no action to prevent such conflicts (ibid., p. 240, para. 209). Moreover, the Court found that there was convincing evidence that child soldiers had been trained in UPDF training camps and that the UPDF had failed to prevent the recruitment of child soldiers in areas under its control (ibid., p. 241, para. 210). 55. The Court concluded on the basis of these findings that Uganda, - 25 - “by the conduct of its armed forces, which committed acts of killing, torture and other forms of inhumane treatment of the Congolese civilian population, destroyed villages and civilian buildings, failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets and to protect the civilian population in fighting with other combatants, trained child soldiers, incited ethnic conflict and failed to take measures to put an end to such conflict; as well as by its failure, as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri district, violated its obligations under international human rights law and international humanitarian law” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part). 56. Finally, the Court found that “officers and soldiers of the UPDF, including the most high-ranking officers, [had been] involved in the looting, plundering and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources and that the military authorities [had] not take[n] any measures to put an end to these acts” (ibid., p. 251, para. 242). It also held that Uganda’s obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri district required it to take appropriate measures to prevent the looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory, not only by members of its military but also by private persons. In the view of the Court, it was apparent “that rather than preventing the illegal traffic in natural resources, including diamonds, high-ranking members of the UPDF facilitated such activities by commercial entities” (ibid., p. 253, paras. 248-249). 57. In this regard, the Court concluded that Uganda, “by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural resources committed by members of the Ugandan armed forces in the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and by its failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri district to prevent acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural resources, violated obligations owed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo under international law” (ibid., pp. 280-281, para. 345, subpara. (4) of the operative part). 58. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court also ruled that the DRC had violated obligations owed to Uganda under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961 and that the DRC was under an obligation to make reparation to Uganda for the injury caused (see paragraph 7 above). In this regard, however, as recalled above, at the hearing of 30 April 2021, the Agent of Uganda stated that Uganda had decided to waive its counter-claim for reparation (see paragraph 47). Therefore, the Court is now seised of the sole question of the reparation owed by Uganda to the DRC. * - 26 - 59. In the present phase of the proceedings, the DRC asks the Court to adjudge and declare that Uganda must pay compensation under four heads of damage, namely damage to persons, damage to property, damage related to natural resources, and macroeconomic damage. Under each of the first three heads of damage, the DRC makes claims with respect to several forms of damage. In particular, the first head of damage (damage to persons) includes the DRC’s claims for loss of life, injuries to persons, rape and sexual violence, recruitment and deployment of child soldiers and displacement of populations. The DRC also seeks several measures of satisfaction. II. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 60. The Court will first recall the context of the present case (Section A). It will then examine, in light of that context, the principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations in this case (Section B), questions of proof (Section C) and the forms of damage subject to reparation (Section D). A. Context 61. The Court notes that the Parties have attached great importance to the context in which Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts and the injury suffered by the DRC occurred. However, they disagree about how much weight should be attached to that context by the Court in assessing the various forms of damage and the amounts of compensation owed. * * 62. The DRC, which regards this case as “unprecedented” before the Court, argues that the Court must take the context into consideration when assessing the evidence relating to each head of damage. It highlights the time that has elapsed since the events concerned occurred, its lack of resources, the continuing conflict on its territory, the trauma suffered by a large number of victims and their low level of education, the destruction and loss of evidence and other related difficulties. Finally, it contends that, “in view of the particular nature of war-related damage, which, by definition, cannot be identified and evaluated systematically, the DRC has . . . been obliged to make assessments which, while general, are based on a variety of solid and reliable evidence”. 63. Uganda is of the view that the DRC cannot simply plead difficulties in gathering evidence in order not to have to do so or to shift the burden of proof onto Uganda. The Respondent considers demonstrably untrue the assertion that it is not possible to gather evidence of damage relating to war. It cites as examples Iraq’s invasion and occupation of Kuwait and Eritrea’s invasion and occupation of northern Ethiopia, which did not prevent evidence or witness testimony from being presented before the relevant commissions. Uganda also contends that such evidence was gathered for certain reparation claims before the International Criminal Court (hereinafter the “ICC”) for the same conflict as that at issue in these proceedings. * * - 27 - 64. The Court considers that the context of the present case is particularly relevant for the analysis of the facts. First and foremost, this case concerns one of the most complex and deadliest armed conflicts to have taken place on the African continent. There were numerous actors operating on the territory of the DRC between 1998 and 2003, including the armed forces of various States, as well as irregular armed forces that often acted in collaboration with the intervening States. The Court recalls that the DRC filed Applications instituting proceedings against Burundi and Rwanda in 1999. At the request of the DRC, the proceedings against Burundi were discontinued (see Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Burundi), Order of 30 January 2001, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 4), while the Court ruled that it did not have jurisdiction to entertain the Application instituting proceedings against Rwanda (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 53, para. 128). 65. The Court emphasizes that this case is characterized by Uganda’s violation of some of the most fundamental principles and rules of international law, namely the principles of non-use of force and of non-intervention, international humanitarian law and basic human rights. Its actions resulted in massive infringements of those rights and serious violations of international humanitarian law, in the form of, inter alia, killings, injuries, cruel and inhuman treatment, damage to property and the plundering of Congolese natural resources. The entire district of Ituri fell under the military occupation and effective control of Uganda. In Kisangani, Uganda engaged in large-scale fighting against Rwandan forces. 66. The Court observes that the time that has elapsed between the current phase of the proceedings and the unfolding of the conflict, namely some 20 years, makes the task of establishing the course of events and their legal characterization even more difficult. The Court notes, however, that the Parties have been aware since the 2005 Judgment that they could be called upon to provide evidence in reparation proceedings. 67. The Court is mindful of the fact that evidentiary difficulties arise, to a certain extent, in most situations of international armed conflict. However, questions of reparation are often resolved through negotiations between the parties concerned. The Court can only regret the failure, in this case, of the negotiations through which the Parties were to “seek in good faith an agreed solution” based on the findings of the 2005 Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 261). 68. The Court will take the context of this case into account when determining the extent of the injury and assessing the reparation owed (see Parts III and IV below). It will first examine the principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations in the present case, before addressing questions of proof and the forms of damage subject to reparation. B. The principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations in the present case 69. The Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it found that Uganda was under an obligation to make reparation for the damage caused by internationally wrongful acts (actions and omissions) attributable to it: - 28 - “259. The Court observes that it is well established in general international law that a State which bears responsibility for an internationally wrongful act is under an obligation to make full reparation for the injury caused by that act (see Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, p. 21; Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 81, para. 152; Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 59, para. 119). Upon examination of the case file, given the character of the internationally wrongful acts for which Uganda has been found responsible (illegal use of force, violation of sovereignty and territorial integrity, military intervention, occupation of Ituri, violations of international human rights law and of international humanitarian law, looting, plunder and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources), the Court considers that those acts resulted in injury to the DRC and to persons on its territory. Having satisfied itself that this injury was caused to the DRC by Uganda, the Court finds that Uganda has an obligation to make reparation accordingly.” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 259.) 70. As regards reparation, Article 31 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter the “ILC Articles on State Responsibility”), which reflects customary international law, provides that: “1. The responsible State is under an obligation to make full reparation for the injury caused by the internationally wrongful act. 2. Injury includes any damage, whether material or moral, caused by the internationally wrongful act of a State.” 71. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court set out the scope of the subsequent phase of the proceedings, should the Parties fail to agree on reparations: “260. The Court further considers appropriate the request of the DRC for the nature, form and amount of the reparation due to it to be determined by the Court, failing agreement between the Parties, in a subsequent phase of the proceedings. The DRC would thus be given the opportunity to demonstrate and prove the exact injury that was suffered as a result of specific actions of Uganda constituting internationally wrongful acts for which it is responsible. It goes without saying, however, as the Court has had the opportunity to state in the past, ‘that in the phase of the proceedings devoted to reparation, neither Party may call in question such findings in the present Judgment as have become res judicata’ (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 143, para. 284).” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 260.) 72. In view of the foregoing, the Court will determine the principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations in the present case, first, by distinguishing between the different situations that arose during the conflict in Ituri and in other areas of the DRC (Subsection 1); second, by analysing the required causal nexus between Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts and the injury suffered by the Applicant (Subsection 2); and, finally, by examining the nature, form and amount of reparation (Subsection 3). - 29 - 1. The principles and rules applicable to the different situations that arose during the conflict 73. The Parties disagree about the scope of Uganda’s obligation to make reparation for the injury suffered in two different situations: in the district of Ituri, under Ugandan occupation, and in other areas of the DRC outside Ituri, including Kisangani where Ugandan and Rwandan armed forces were operating simultaneously. (a) In Ituri 74. The Parties hold opposing views on whether the reparation owed by Uganda to the DRC extends to damage caused by third parties in the district of Ituri. 75. Recalling Uganda’s status as an occupying Power, as established by the Court in its 2005 Judgment, the DRC contends that the Respondent’s responsibility is engaged for all the damage caused by third parties in Ituri. In the Applicant’s view, Uganda violated its duty of vigilance as an occupying Power. The DRC adds that, as an occupying Power, the Respondent was under an obligation to uphold international law by protecting the population, including from the acts of rebel groups in Ituri. 76. According to the DRC, Uganda cannot demand from it precise and detailed evidence of the injury suffered in Ituri when, as the occupying Power in that district, Uganda was itself at the root of the situation that led to the disappearance of evidence. 77. Uganda, for its part, claims that the conflict between the Hema and the Lendu in Ituri predated its intervention by over a century. It submits that the DRC must prove the causal nexus between Uganda’s breaches of its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri and the damage inflicted in that district by individuals or groups, whether or not they were supported by the Respondent. Relying on the Court’s decision in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), the Respondent argues that it is necessary to demonstrate with a sufficient degree of certainty that the damage caused by third parties, whose conduct is not attributable to it, would not have occurred had it duly discharged its obligations as an occupying Power. * * 78. The Court considers that the status of the district of Ituri as an occupied territory has a direct bearing on questions of proof and the requisite causal nexus. As an occupying Power, Uganda had a duty of vigilance in preventing violations of human rights and international humanitarian law by other actors present in the occupied territory, including rebel groups acting on their own account. Given this duty of vigilance, the Court concluded that the Respondent’s responsibility was engaged “by its failure . . . to take measures to . . . ensure respect for human rights and international - 30 - humanitarian law in Ituri district” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 231, paras. 178-179, p. 245, para. 211, and p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part). Taking into account this conclusion, it is for Uganda to establish, in this phase of the proceedings, that a particular injury alleged by the DRC in Ituri was not caused by Uganda’s failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power. In the absence of evidence to that effect, it may be concluded that Uganda owes reparation in relation to such injury. 79. With respect to natural resources, the Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it considered that Uganda, as an occupying Power, had an “obligation to take appropriate measures to prevent the looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory [by] private persons in [Ituri] district” (ibid., p. 253, para. 248). The Court found that Uganda had “fail[ed] to comply with its obligations under Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of 1907 as an occupying Power in Ituri in respect of all acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory” (ibid., p. 253, para. 250) and that its international responsibility was thereby engaged (ibid., p. 281, para. 345, subpara. (4) of the operative part). The reparation owed by Uganda in respect of acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources in Ituri is addressed below (see paragraph 275). (b) Outside Ituri 80. As regards damage that occurred outside Ituri, the DRC is of the view that Uganda must make good any damage caused by Ugandan forces or by irregular forces supported by Uganda, namely the Congo Liberation Movement (hereinafter the “MLC”) and its armed wing, the Congo Liberation Army (hereinafter the “ALC”). According to the Applicant, this damage could not have been caused without Uganda’s support. The Applicant adds that the reparation owed by Uganda must also cover damage resulting from the actions of other irregular forces in the area that received support from the Respondent. While the Applicant acknowledges that some of the damage that occurred in Kisangani may be the result of a multiplicity of causes, including the actions of Uganda, it contends that this damage would not have occurred had Uganda not entered Congolese territory in breach of international law. The DRC claims compensation for the entirety of this injury. Furthermore, the Applicant mentions other damage caused by both the internationally wrongful conduct of Uganda and that of other States or certain groups that were not supported by Uganda, damage for which the DRC seeks partial (45 per cent) reparation from Uganda. 81. Uganda claims that reparation must be limited to the injury caused directly by members of its armed forces and that the burden of proof rests with the Applicant in this regard. With respect to injury caused by the actions of irregular forces, the Respondent contends that even when it provided support to those groups, Uganda can be found to owe reparation for such injury only if the Applicant proves that it “was suffered as a result of” Uganda’s illegal support. It adds that it is not enough to assert in abstracto that the injury attributable to the rebel groups would not have occurred without Uganda’s support. * * - 31 - 82. The Court recalls the findings in its 2005 Judgment that the rebel groups operating in the territory of the DRC outside of Ituri were not under Uganda’s control, that their conduct was not attributable to it and that Uganda was not in breach of its duty of vigilance with regard to the illegal activities of such groups (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 226, paras. 160-161, pp. 230-231, para. 177, and p. 253, para. 247). Consequently, no reparation can be awarded for damage caused by the actions of those groups. 83. The Court found, in the same Judgment, that, even if the MLC was not under the Respondent’s control, the latter provided support to the group (ibid., p. 226, para. 160), and that Uganda’s training and support of the ALC violated certain obligations of international law (ibid., p. 226, para. 161). The Court will take this finding into account when it considers the DRC’s claims for reparation. 84. It falls to the Court to assess each category of alleged damage on a case-by-case basis and to examine whether Uganda’s support of the relevant rebel group was a sufficiently direct and certain cause of the injury. The extent of the damage and the consequent reparation must be determined by the Court when examining each injury concerned. The same applies in respect of the damage suffered specifically in Kisangani, which the Court will consider in Part III. 2. The causal nexus between the internationally wrongful acts and the injury suffered 85. The Parties differ on whether reparation should be limited to the injury directly linked to an internationally wrongful act or should also cover the indirect consequences of that act. * * 86. The DRC argues that the Respondent must make good any damage demonstrated to be a consequence of its internationally wrongful conduct. It adds that Uganda is obliged to make reparation for the entire injury, whether it resulted directly from its internationally wrongful conduct or was caused by an uninterrupted chain of events. In the Applicant’s view, the perpetrator of the internationally wrongful act is bound to make reparation for any damage that would not have occurred had the internationally wrongful act not been committed, regardless of the existence of intervening causes between the internationally wrongful act and the damage. It holds Uganda responsible for all the damage inflicted, including that resulting from acts committed by irregular forces such as the MLC. According to the DRC, whatever the location of the armed rebel groups, they would not have been able to commit acts of looting, destruction and other atrocities without support from Uganda. 87. The Applicant considers that the foreseeability of the damage should be taken into account. In its view, Uganda could not have failed to foresee that its acts would produce damage, and it should therefore be required to make reparation. The DRC adds that this reparation is owed even if certain intervening causes attributable to third parties occurred between the internationally wrongful act and the damage. - 32 - 88. Uganda contends that the causal nexus must be assessed differently depending on the internationally wrongful act at issue. 89. As regards the principle of non-intervention, Uganda draws attention to the imputability of the acts committed by irregular armed groups. It points out that the Court, in its 2005 Judgment, ruled that the wrongful acts committed by various armed groups supported by Uganda could not be attributed to it. It further asserts that the DRC has failed to establish that Uganda’s support for those groups was the direct and certain cause of a specific injury attributable to them. Although the Respondent admits that the political or financial support provided to certain groups, to the extent that it was established, could be characterized as wrongful, it contends that this does not automatically and without further proof make such support the direct and certain cause of the wrongful acts committed by these groups. Uganda relies on the 2005 Judgment to argue that it has in no way been established that it created those armed groups or controlled their operations, nor has it been established that those groups were acting on its instructions or under its direction or control. The Respondent adds that it did not have a duty of vigilance on Congolese territory outside Ituri and, consequently, that the damage inflicted by other forces on that territory could not be connected to an alleged lack of vigilance on the part of Uganda. 90. As regards the régime of occupation in the district of Ituri, the Respondent insists that it falls to the DRC to demonstrate a causal nexus between Uganda’s breach of its obligations as an occupying Power and the damage inflicted in that district by individuals or groups. It adds that the DRC has failed to show that certain measures were not taken by Uganda to prevent damage by third parties. 91. With respect to the principle of non-use of force, the Respondent argues that it falls to the DRC to demonstrate a direct and certain causal nexus between the internationally wrongful act and the injury. It considers unfounded the DRC’s position that a causal nexus can be established simply by the fact that the damage would not have occurred “but for” Uganda’s violation of the jus ad bellum. 92. Finally, relying on the Judgment rendered by the Court on 26 February 2007 in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 234, para. 462), Uganda claims that even if it had taken the necessary measures, the damage caused by third parties in Ituri would still have occurred. * * 93. The Court may award compensation only when an injury is caused by the internationally wrongful act of a State. As a general rule, it falls to the party seeking compensation to prove the existence of a causal nexus between the internationally wrongful act and the injury suffered. In accordance with the jurisprudence of the Court, compensation can be awarded only if there is “a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the wrongful act . . . and the injury suffered by the Applicant, consisting of all damage of any type, material or moral” (ibid., pp. 233-234, para. 462). The Court applied this same criterion in two other cases in which the question of - 33 - reparation arose (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 32; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 332, para. 14). However, it should be noted that the causal nexus required may vary depending on the primary rule violated and the nature and extent of the injury. 94. In particular, in the case of damage resulting from war, the question of the causal nexus can raise certain difficulties. In a situation of a long-standing and large-scale armed conflict, as in this case, the causal nexus between the wrongful conduct and certain injuries for which an applicant seeks reparation may be readily established. For some other injuries, the link between the internationally wrongful act and the alleged injury may be insufficiently direct and certain to call for reparation. It may be that the damage is attributable to several concurrent causes, including the actions or omissions of the respondent. It is also possible that several internationally wrongful acts of the same nature, but attributable to different actors, may result in a single injury or in several distinct injuries. The Court will consider these questions as they arise, in light of the facts of this case and the evidence available. Ultimately, it is for the Court to decide if there is a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts and the various forms of damage allegedly suffered by the DRC (see Part II, Section A above). 95. The Court is of the opinion that, in analysing the causal nexus, it must make a distinction between the alleged actions and omissions that took place in Ituri, which was under the occupation and effective control of Uganda, and those that occurred in other areas of the DRC, where Uganda did not necessarily have effective control, notwithstanding the support it provided to several rebel groups whose actions gave rise to damage. The Court recalls that Uganda is under an obligation to make reparation for all damage resulting from the conflict in Ituri, even that resulting from the conduct of third parties, unless it has established, with respect to a particular injury, that it was not caused by Uganda’s failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power (see paragraph 78 above). 96. Lastly, the Court cannot accept the Respondent’s argument based on an analogy with the 2007 Judgment in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 234, para. 462, in which the Court expressly “confine[d] itself to determining the specific scope of the duty to prevent in the Genocide Convention” and did not “purport to establish a general jurisprudence applicable to all cases where a treaty instrument, or other binding legal norm, includes an obligation for States to prevent certain acts” (ibid., pp. 220-221, para. 429). The Court considers that the legal régimes and factual circumstances in question are not comparable, given that, unlike the above-mentioned Genocide case, the present case concerns a situation of occupation. 97. As regards the injury suffered outside Ituri, the Court must take account of the fact that some of this damage occurred as a result of a combination of actions and omissions attributable to other States and to rebel groups operating on Congolese territory. The Court cannot accept the Applicant’s assessment that Uganda is obliged to make reparation for 45 per cent of all the damage - 34 - that occurred during the armed conflict on Congolese territory. This assessment, which purports to correspond to the proportion of Congolese territory under Ugandan influence, has no basis in law or in fact. However, the fact that the damage was the result of concurrent causes is not sufficient to exempt the Respondent from any obligation to make reparation. 98. The Parties have also addressed the applicable law in situations in which multiple actors engage in conduct that gives rise to injury, which has particular relevance to the events in Kisangani, where the damage alleged by the DRC arose out of conflict between the forces of Uganda and those of Rwanda. The Court recalls that, in certain situations in which multiple causes attributable to two or more actors have resulted in injury, a single actor may be required to make full reparation for the damage suffered (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 22-23; see commentary to Article 31 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 91, and particularly pp. 93-94, paras. 12-13, as well as the commentary to Article 47, ibid., pp. 124-125, paras. 1-8). In other situations, in which the conduct of multiple actors has given rise to injury, responsibility for part of such injury should instead be allocated among those actors (see commentary to Article 31, ibid., p. 93, para. 13, and to Article 47, ibid., p. 125, para. 5). The Court will return to this issue in assessing the DRC’s claims for compensation in relation to Kisangani (see paragraphs 177, 221 and 253 below). 3. The nature, form and amount of reparation 99. The Court will recall certain international legal principles that inform the determination of the nature, form and amount of reparation under the law on the international responsibility of States in general and in situations of mass violations in the context of armed conflict in particular. 100. It is well established in international law that “the breach of an engagement involves an obligation to make reparation in an adequate form” (Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, p. 21). This is an obligation to make full reparation for the damage caused by an internationally wrongful act (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 30; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 691, para. 161; Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 59, para. 119; Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 80, para. 150). 101. As stated in Article 34 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, “[f]ull reparation for the injury caused by the internationally wrongful act shall take the form of restitution, compensation and satisfaction, either singly or in combination”. Thus, compensation may be an appropriate form of reparation, particularly in those cases where restitution is materially impossible (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 31; Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), pp. 103-104, para. 273). - 35 - 102. In view of the circumstances of the present case, the Court emphasizes that it is well established in international law that reparation due to a State is compensatory in nature and should not have a punitive character (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 31). The Court observes, moreover, that any reparation is intended, as far as possible, to benefit all those who suffered injury resulting from internationally wrongful acts (see Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 344, para. 57). 103. The Court notes that the Parties do not agree on the principles and methodologies applicable to the assessment of damage resulting from an armed conflict or to the quantification of compensation due. * * 104. The DRC contends that it reached an estimate, in good faith, of the damage caused, by applying a well-defined method and taking account of the circumstances of the case, where the damage suffered was on a massive scale. Thus, in such circumstances, according to the DRC, the Court’s jurisprudence does not require a precise assessment of the damage caused. The Applicant contests the Respondent’s claim that every injury suffered by every victim has to be specifically demonstrated in order to calculate the quantum. The DRC relies on the standard of proof applicable to mass claims. According to the Applicant, consistent international jurisprudence supports the proposition that international law does not require the specific injuries caused to each victim or group of victims to be established in order to calculate compensation in the context of mass claims. The Applicant also draws attention to the difficulties involved in gathering evidence. The DRC thus argues that it will be necessary to mitigate the effects of the general rule that it is for the party that alleges a fact to prove its existence, in order to take account of situations where the respondent is in a better position to provide evidence of the facts at issue. The Applicant contends that international jurisprudence, particularly in the context of mass injury, has introduced a certain amount of flexibility as regards the establishment of detailed and precise evidence. The DRC relies in this regard on the practice of the European Court of Human Rights, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission (hereinafter the “EECC”) and the ICC. 105. Uganda, for its part, contends that the Court must demand a high degree of certainty to establish the damage caused. The Respondent thus argues that the DRC must prove the damage, by stating precisely which persons or property, in specific places and at specific times, incurred loss, damage or injury. In addition, Uganda claims that the fact that Ituri was occupied does not relieve the DRC of the obligation to submit some evidence. * * - 36 - 106. The Court recalls that “reparation must, as far as possible, wipe out all the consequences of the illegal act” (Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, p. 47). The Court has recognized in other cases that the absence of adequate evidence of the extent of material damage will not, in all situations, preclude an award of compensation for that damage (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 35). While the Court recognizes that there is some uncertainty about the exact extent of the damage caused, this does not preclude it from determining the amount of compensation. The Court may, on an exceptional basis, award compensation in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking account of equitable considerations. Such an approach may be called for where the evidence leaves no doubt that an internationally wrongful act has caused a substantiated injury, but does not allow a precise evaluation of the extent or scale of such injury (see Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26-27, para. 35; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 334, para. 21, pp. 334-335, para. 24, and p. 337, para. 33). 107. The Court observes that, in most instances, when compensation has been granted in cases involving a large group of victims who have suffered serious injury in situations of armed conflict, the judicial or other bodies concerned have awarded a global sum, for certain categories of injury, on the basis of the evidence at their disposal. The EECC, for example, noted the intrinsic difficulties faced by judicial bodies in such situations. It acknowledged that the compensation it awarded reflected “the damage that could be established with sufficient certainty through the available evidence” (Final Award, Eritrea’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XXVI, p. 516, para. 2), even though the awards “probably d[id] not reflect the totality of damage that either Party suffered in violation of international law” (ibid.). It also recognized that, in the context of proceedings aimed at providing compensation for injuries affecting large numbers of victims, the relevant institutions have adopted less rigorous standards of proof. They have accordingly reduced the levels of compensation awarded in order to account for the uncertainties that flow from applying a lower standard of proof (ibid., pp. 528-529, para. 38). 108. The Court is convinced that it should proceed in this manner in the present case. It will take due account of the above-mentioned conclusions regarding the nature, form and amount of reparation when considering the different forms of damage claimed by the DRC. 109. Uganda submits that the relevant principles of international law concerning compensation preclude requiring a responsible State to pay compensation that exceeds its financial capacity. The DRC, however, considers that “the amounts awarded should not be influenced by . . . the situation of the perpetrator of the wrongful act” and that they should depend on the injury alone. 110. The Court recalls in this regard that the EECC raised the question whether, in determining the amount of compensation, account should be taken of the financial burden imposed on the responsible State, given its economic condition, in particular if there is any doubt about - 37 - the State’s capacity to pay without compromising its ability to meet its people’s basic needs (Final Award, Eritrea’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, pp. 522-524, paras. 19-22). The Court will further address the question of the respondent State’s financial capacity below (see paragraph 407). C. Questions of proof 111. Having established the principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations in the present case, the Court will examine questions of proof in order to determine who bears the burden of proving a fact, the standard of proof, and the weight to be given to certain kinds of evidence. * * 112. The DRC maintains that it is not required, as Uganda claims, to prove each injury sustained in the armed conflict. According to the Applicant, Uganda is seeking to impose a more exacting standard of proof than is required at the reparations stage. It adds that, at this stage, the circumstances of the case and the difficulties encountered by the Parties in gathering evidence in a situation of armed conflict should also be taken into account. The DRC recalls the Court’s jurisprudence, according to which, in some situations, the respondent is in a better position to establish certain facts. It therefore asks the Court to adopt an approach to the valuation of harm that is neither mechanical nor rigid. 113. Uganda, for its part, draws the attention of the Court to the DRC’s obligation to prove the loss, damage or injury suffered by specific persons or property, in specific places and at specific times. According to the Respondent, it follows from the 2005 Judgment, in particular paragraph 260 thereof (see paragraph 71 above), that the DRC must demonstrate that the injury suffered was the consequence of the internationally wrongful acts for which Uganda was found responsible, by providing evidence that the injury was a result of specific actions attributable to Uganda. According to the Respondent, it falls to the DRC to provide proof of the exact injury, the causal nexus, and that each specific action that gave rise to injury is attributable to Uganda. * * 114. The Court does not accept Uganda’s contention that the DRC must prove the exact injury suffered by a specific person or property in a given location and at a given time for it to award reparation. In cases of mass injuries like the present one, the Court may form an appreciation of the extent of damage on which compensation should be based without necessarily having to identify the names of all victims or specific information about each building or other property destroyed in the conflict. - 38 - 1. The burden of proof 115. The Court will begin by recalling the rules governing the burden of proof. In accordance with its well-established jurisprudence on the matter, “as a general rule, it is for the party which alleges a fact in support of its claims to prove the existence of that fact” (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 33; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54). In principle, therefore, it falls to the party alleging a fact to “submit the relevant evidence to substantiate its claims” (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 71, para. 163). 116. However, the Court considers that this is not an absolute rule applicable in all circumstances. There are situations where “this general rule would have to be applied flexibly . . . and, in particular, [where] the Respondent may be in a better position to establish certain facts” (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 332, para. 15). The Court “cannot however apply a presumption that evidence which is unavailable would, if produced, have supported a particular party’s case; still less a presumption of the existence of evidence which has not been produced” (Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 399, para. 63). 117. The Court has thus underlined that “[t]he determination of the burden of proof is in reality dependent on the subject-matter and the nature of each dispute brought before the Court; it varies according to the type of facts which it is necessary to establish for the purposes of the decision of the case” (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54). It is for the Court to evaluate all the evidence produced by the parties and which has been duly subjected to their scrutiny, with a view to forming its conclusions. Depending on the circumstances of the case, it may be that “neither party is alone in bearing the burden of proof” (ibid., p. 661, para. 56). 118. As regards the damage that occurred in the district of Ituri, which was under Ugandan occupation, the Court recalls the conclusion it reached in paragraph 78 above. In this phase of the proceedings, it is for Uganda to establish that a particular injury suffered by the DRC in Ituri was not caused by its failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power. 119. However, as regards damage that occurred on Congolese territory outside Ituri, and although the existence of armed conflict may make it more difficult to establish the facts, the Court is of the view that “[u]ltimately . . . it is the litigant seeking to establish a fact who bears the burden of proving it; and in cases where evidence may not be forthcoming, a submission may in the judgment be rejected as unproved” (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 319, para. 101; see also Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 437, para. 101). - 39 - 2. The standard of proof and degree of certainty 120. In practice, the Court has applied various criteria to assess evidence (see Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 129-130, paras. 209-210; Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 17). The Court considers that the standard of proof may vary from case to case and may depend on the gravity of the acts alleged (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 130, para. 210). The Court has also recognized that a State that is not in a position to provide direct proof of certain facts “should be allowed a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact and circumstantial evidence” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 18). 121. The Court has previously addressed the question of the weight to be given to certain kinds of evidence. The Court recalls, as noted in its 2005 Judgment, that it “will treat with caution evidentiary materials specially prepared for this case and also materials emanating from a single source. It will prefer contemporaneous evidence from persons with direct knowledge. It will give particular attention to reliable evidence acknowledging facts or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the person making them (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 41. para. 64). The Court will also give weight to evidence that has not, even before this litigation, been challenged by impartial persons for the correctness of what it contains.” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 201, para. 61; see also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 130-131, para. 213). 122. The Court stated that the value of reports from official or independent bodies “depends, among other things, on (1) the source of the item of evidence (for instance partisan, or neutral), (2) the process by which it has been generated (for instance an anonymous press report or the product of a careful court or court-like process), and (3) the quality or character of the item (such as statements against interest, and agreed or uncontested facts)” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), p. 76, para. 190). 123. The Court considers it helpful to refer to the practice of other international bodies that have addressed the determination of reparation concerning mass violations in the context of armed conflict. The EECC recognized the difficulties associated with questions of proof in its examination of compensation claims for violations of obligations under the jus in bello and jus ad bellum committed in the context of an international armed conflict. While it required “clear and convincing evidence to establish that damage occurred”, the EECC noted that if the same high standard were required for quantification of the damage, it would thwart any reparation. It therefore required “less rigorous proof” for the purposes of quantification (Final Award, Eritrea’s Damages Claims, - 40 - Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 528, para. 36). Moreover, in its Order for Reparations in the Katanga case, which concerns acts that took place in the course of the same armed conflict as in the present case, the ICC was mindful of the fact that “the Applicants were not always in a position to furnish documentary evidence in support of all of the harm alleged, given the circumstances in the DRC” (The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, Trial Chamber II, Order for Reparations pursuant to Article 75 of the Statute, 24 March 2017, p. 38, para. 84). 124. In light of the foregoing and given that a large amount of evidence has been destroyed or rendered inaccessible over the years since the armed conflict, the Court is of the view that the standard of proof required to establish responsibility is higher than in the present phase on reparation, which calls for some flexibility. 125. The Court notes that the evidence included in the case file by the DRC is, for the most part, insufficient to reach a precise determination of the amount of compensation due. However, given the context of armed conflict in this case, the Court must take account of other evidence, such as the various investigative reports in the case file, in particular those from United Nations organs. The Court already examined much of this evidence in its 2005 Judgment and took the view that some of the United Nations reports, as well as the final report of the Judicial Commission of Inquiry into Allegations into Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the DRC established in 2001 (hereinafter the “Porter Commission Report”), had probative value when corroborated by other reliable sources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 249, para. 237). Although the Court noted in 2005 that it was not necessary for it to make findings of fact for each individual incident, these documents nevertheless record a considerable number of incidents on which the Court can now rely in evaluating the damage and the amount of compensation due. The Court will also take more recent evidence into account, notably the “Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003”, which was published in 2010 by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (hereinafter the “Mapping Report”). The Court will also take account of the reports by the Court-appointed experts, where it considers them to be relevant. 126. In the circumstances of the case and given the context and the time that has elapsed since the facts in question occurred, the Court considers that it must assess the existence and extent of the damage within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence. This may be evidence included in the case file by the Parties, in the reports submitted by the Court-appointed experts or in reports of the United Nations and other national or international bodies. Finally, the Court considers that, in such circumstances, an assessment of the existence and extent of the damage must be based on reasonable estimates, taking into account whether a particular finding of fact is supported by more than one source of evidence (“a number of concordant indications”) (see Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 83, para. 152). - 41 - D. The forms of damage subject to reparation 127. The Parties disagree about which forms of damage fall within the scope of the 2005 Judgment and thus must be taken into account by the Court during this phase of the proceedings. * * 128. The DRC argues that the internationally wrongful acts attributable to Uganda and the existence of the resulting injuries have already been established by the Court in its 2005 Judgment and that the present phase of the proceedings concerns only the extent of those injuries, with a view to evaluating the amount of the reparation. 129. The DRC asserts that it is not reasonable to interpret the 2005 Judgment as excluding from this reparation phase the forms of damage not expressly mentioned therein. Thus, in the Applicant’s view, incidents of rape and sexual violence, which are not referred to as such in the 2005 Judgment, fall within the framework of that Judgment, as do other forms of damage, such as macroeconomic damage and the plundering of certain minerals not expressly mentioned therein. 130. While Uganda admits its responsibility for the internationally wrongful acts established by the Court, it contends that the 2005 Judgment contains certain temporal, geographic and subject-matter limitations. It considers that its obligation to make reparation concerns only the forms of damage expressly set out in the 2005 Judgment. In the Respondent’s view, the DRC cannot, at this late stage, introduce into the general framework of the 2005 Judgment acts such as rape or sexual violence. Uganda thus asks the Court to limit the scope of the present Judgment to only those forms of damage expressly mentioned in the 2005 Judgment. * * 131. The Court has already determined, in its 2005 Judgment, that Uganda is under an obligation to make reparation for the injury caused to the DRC by several actions and omissions attributable to it. The Court is of the opinion that its task, at this stage of the proceedings, is to rule on the nature and amount of reparation owed to the DRC by Uganda for the forms of damage established in 2005 that are attributable to it. Indeed, the Court’s objective in its 2005 Judgment was not to determine the precise injuries suffered by the DRC. It is sufficient for an injury claimed by the Applicant to fall within the categories established in 2005 (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211, p. 245, para. 220, pp. 252-253, paras. 246-250, p. 257, para. 259, and pp. 280-281, para. 345, subparas. (3) and (4) of the operative part). As the Court has done in previous cases on reparation, it will determine whether each of the claims for reparation falls within the scope of its prior findings on liability (cf. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 332-333, para. 17, and p. 343, para. 53). - 42 - III. COMPENSATION CLAIMED BY THE DRC 132. The DRC claims compensation for damage to persons (Section A), damage to property (Section B), damage to natural resources (Section C) and for macroeconomic damage (Section D). The Court will examine these claims on the basis of the general considerations described above. A. Damage to persons 133. In the operative part of its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that Uganda “by the conduct of its armed forces, which committed acts of killing, torture and other forms of inhumane treatment of the Congolese civilian population, destroyed villages and civilian buildings, failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets and to protect the civilian population in fighting with other combatants, trained child soldiers, incited ethnic conflict and failed to take measures to put an end to such conflict; as well as by its failure, as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri district, violated its obligations under international human rights law and international humanitarian law” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part); and “that the Republic of Uganda, by engaging in military activities against the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the latter’s territory, by occupying Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic, economic and financial support to irregular forces having operated on the territory of the DRC, violated the principle of non-use of force in international relations and the principle of non-intervention” (ibid., p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (1) of the operative part). * * 134. The DRC claims a total of at least US$4,350,421,800 in compensation for damage to persons caused by the internationally wrongful acts of Uganda. The DRC divides this claim by reference to five forms of damage: loss of life (US$4,045,646,000), injuries and mutilations (US$54,464,000), rape and sexual violence (US$33,458,000), recruitment and deployment of child soldiers (US$30,000,000), as well as displacement of populations (US$186,853,800). 1. Loss of life 135. The DRC claims compensation for the loss of 180,000 civilian lives. To this, the DRC adds a claim for the loss of the lives of 2,000 members of the Congolese armed forces who were allegedly killed in fighting with the Ugandan army or Ugandan-backed armed groups. To substantiate - 43 - the number of 180,000 civilian lives lost, the DRC relies on mortality surveys and other estimates produced by non-governmental organizations, in particular a report by the International Rescue Committee (hereinafter the “IRC”) and a study conducted by the Association pour le développement de la recherche appliquée en sciences sociales (hereinafter “ADRASS”). These studies aim to quantify “excess mortality” by comparing the overall observed or calculated deaths during the conflict period with the mortality rate of previous years. While the IRC report estimates that 3.9 million “excess deaths” occurred during the relevant period, between 1998 and 2003, the ADRASS study arrives at a number of 200,000 “excess deaths”. 136. The DRC proceeds from the estimate of the IRC, which it rounds up to 4 million lives lost. It then divides this number by ten, “[g]iven the caution which should be observed within judicial proceedings”, to arrive at a “minimum estimate” of 400,000 civilian victims. Recognizing that Uganda should not be held responsible for every civilian death caused by the armed conflict, the DRC subsequently applies a multiplier of 0.45 to reflect the share of responsibility it attributes to Uganda. The DRC thereby arrives at a number of 180,000 civilian lives lost attributable to Uganda. The DRC considers that this approach finds support in the report of the Court-appointed expert Ms Guha-Sapir, who, based on data from 38 mortality surveys in the public domain, estimates the “excess civilian deaths” due to the conflict in the DRC between 1998 and 2003 to be 4,958,775. Dividing this number by ten and applying the 0.45 multiplier put forward by the DRC, Ms Guha-Sapir arrives at an estimate of 224,449 “excess civilian deaths”. 137. The DRC submits that 60,000 of those deaths occurred in Ituri, that 920 resulted from the fighting in Kisangani, and that 119,080 occurred in other parts of the country. The DRC further divides the number of civilian lives lost into those resulting from violence that was deliberately targeted at the civilian population (40,000 in Ituri), and those which resulted from other breaches of Uganda’s international obligations in the context of the invasion and occupation of parts of the DRC (20,000 collateral civilian deaths in Ituri; 920 in Kisangani; and 119,080 civilian deaths in other areas of the DRC). 138. In response to a question posed by the Court under Article 62 of the Rules of Court, the DRC submitted “victim identification form[s]”, which had been collected by an expert commission established by the Government of the DRC (hereinafter the “Congolese Commission of Inquiry”). These forms record 5,440 individual lives allegedly lost due to Uganda’s unlawful conduct. 139. The DRC proposes that the Court use fixed sums to determine the compensation for each life lost. With respect to lives lost as a result of acts of violence deliberately targeted at the civilian population, the DRC requests US$34,000 in compensation per person. This figure allegedly corresponds to the average amount awarded by Congolese courts to the families of victims of war crimes. Regarding civilian deaths not resulting from direct violence against the civilian population and deaths among members of the Congolese armed forces, the DRC proposes that the Court use fixed amounts based on an estimation of the average age of the victims, average life expectancy and average anticipated yearly income, resulting in a figure of US$18,913 per person. With respect to the first category, the DRC notes that one of the Court-appointed experts, Mr. Senogles, did not analyse the prevailing practice of Congolese courts, as stipulated in the Court’s terms of reference, and considers that his proposal to award US$30,000 per person is unsubstantiated and too low. The DRC is of the view that the expert failed to explain why the Court should have recourse to the practice of the United Nations Compensation Commission (hereinafter the “UNCC”) instead of the case law of international courts and tribunals, especially those operating on the African continent. - 44 - 140. In total, the DRC requests the Court to award US$4,045,646,000 in compensation for the loss of life which, it alleges, was caused by Uganda. * 141. Uganda submits that demographic studies estimating excess mortality do not prove “the exact injury that was suffered as a result of specific actions of Uganda”, as required by the Court in its 2005 Judgment (I.C.J Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 260). Uganda also maintains that the IRC study, as well as the report by the Court-appointed expert Ms Guha-Sapir, is unreliable and methodologically flawed. In particular, Uganda argues that both studies are based on outdated data. It asserts that if Ms Guha-Sapir’s methodology were to be applied to the more recent data for the period 1998-2003 published by the United Nations Population Division, no significant “excess deaths” would have been detected. Uganda also notes that the authors of the ADRASS study considered that their figure of 200,000 lives lost is probably significantly overstated. Uganda further claims that the DRC’s use of a multiplier of 0.45 to determine Uganda’s share of responsibility is arbitrary and does not adequately take the role of other actors into account. 142. Uganda also refers to other independent sources, including the Uppsala Conflict Data Program (hereinafter the “UCDP”) housed at Uppsala University and used by the Court-appointed expert Mr. Urdal, the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (hereinafter the “ACLED”) housed at the University of Sussex, and the Mapping Report. Uganda points out that these “neutral sources” arrive at figures which are far lower than those put forward by the DRC. It also maintains that, under the Court’s jurisprudence and for various reasons, the reports by third parties on which the DRC relies, including United Nations reports and reports by non-governmental organizations, must be treated with caution. Finally, Uganda argues that the practice of international courts and tribunals requires an applicant to provide evidence that proves the identity of persons who were allegedly killed, including the person’s name and the date, location and cause of death. Uganda asserts that the DRC has thus failed to meet its burden of proof as to the exact injury that was suffered as a result of specific actions of Uganda. The DRC’s request for compensation should therefore be rejected. 143. Regarding the claim concerning the deaths of Congolese soldiers, Uganda contends that the Court made no finding in the 2005 Judgment that Uganda was responsible for such deaths and that, even if the DRC were entitled to seek reparation for these alleged deaths, the claim is unsupported by evidence. 144. Concerning the valuation of lives lost as a result of deliberate violence against the civilian population, Uganda disputes that the appropriate average amount of compensation should be determined by reference to decisions of the DRC’s domestic courts. It also asserts that the figure put forward by the DRC in this regard is not corroborated by the documents the DRC has submitted. Moreover, Uganda maintains that in recent reparation decisions relating to the same conflict, the ICC - 45 - has awarded amounts that are substantially lower than those allegedly awarded by Congolese courts. Uganda also considers that the variables used by the DRC to determine the average amount of compensation for civilian deaths that were not the result of deliberate violence are not supported by evidence. In particular, Uganda notes that, in calculating the average annual income of the deceased victims, the actual average income in the DRC should be used instead of gross domestic product per capita. Concerning the report of the Court-appointed expert Mr. Senogles, Uganda argues that the valuation practice of the UNCC cannot be transposed to inter-State judicial proceedings. Moreover, Uganda maintains that Mr. Senogles applied the UNCC’s methodology incorrectly by recommending fixed amounts based on the Commission’s Category C claims, which required more detailed evidence of individual losses than is available in the present proceedings. * * 145. The Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it found, inter alia, that Uganda had committed acts of killing among the civilian population, had failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets, had not protected the civilian population in fighting with other combatants and, as an occupying Power, had failed to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211, and p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part). Furthermore, the Court found that Uganda, through its unlawful military intervention in the DRC, had violated the prohibition of the use of force as expressed in Article 2, paragraph 4, of the United Nations Charter (ibid., p. 227, para. 165). The Court reaffirms that, as a matter of principle, the loss of life caused by these internationally wrongful acts gives rise to the obligation of Uganda to make full reparation. To award compensation, the Court must determine the existence and extent of the injury suffered by the Applicant and satisfy itself that there exists a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the Respondent’s internationally wrongful act and the injury suffered. 146. The victim identification forms submitted by the DRC (see paragraph 138 above) are few in number in comparison to the number of lives lost claimed by the DRC, and thus do not support the claim that Uganda owes reparation for 180,000 civilian deaths. 147. Moreover, a large majority of the victim identification forms do not indicate the name of the deceased. Although, given the extraordinary circumstances of the present case, the Court is not persuaded by Uganda’s contention that the identity of the persons allegedly killed must be established for these forms to have any evidentiary value (see paragraph 114 above), the victim identification forms also suffer from other defects, in particular the fact that they are not accompanied by corroborating documentation. Furthermore, many of the forms do not show a sufficient causal nexus between any internationally wrongful conduct by Uganda and the alleged harm, but rather refer to other actors as the presumed perpetrators of such harm, including Rwanda or armed groups operating outside Ituri, for whose actions Uganda was not responsible. The Court has observed in previous cases that witness statements which are collected many years after the relevant events, especially when not supported by corroborating documentation, must be treated with caution (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), pp. 78-79, paras. 197 and 199; Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, - 46 - I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 731, para. 244). Consequently, the victim identification forms submitted by the DRC can be accorded only very limited probative value in arriving at an appreciation of the number of deaths for which Uganda owes reparation. 148. The scientific studies relied on by the DRC to calculate the number of “excess deaths”, namely the IRC report and the ADRASS study, do not substantiate the existence of a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus. The Court considers that, irrespective of the scientific and methodological quality of the surveys, they were not intended to, and do not, identify the number of deaths that have a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus to the unlawful acts of Uganda. In her report, Ms Guha-Sapir estimates “with 95% confidence that a minimum of 3.2 million excess deaths may have resulted in this period due to armed conflict”, but the Court was not convinced by her explanation for this estimate. During the hearing, Ms Guha-Sapir acknowledged that it was impossible to attribute the “excess deaths” identified in her report to a single cause. Even if the number of 3.2 million lives lost were accepted as an indication of the number of lives lost during the armed conflict, the Court would be left without any plausible basis to determine for which of these lives lost “there is a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the wrongful act . . . and the injury suffered by the Applicant” (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 32; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 332, para. 14, citing Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 232-233, para. 462). Some of the lives lost during the conflict (the number of which cannot be determined) may be regarded as having a cause that is too remote from the internationally wrongful acts of Uganda to be a basis for a claim of reparation against it (see commentary to Article 31 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 93, para. 10). Consequently, the Court considers that the mortality surveys presented cannot contribute to the determination of the number of lives lost that are attributable to Uganda. 149. The Court also takes note of the report on “conflict deaths”, that is “lives lost as a direct result of the armed conflict”, prepared by the Court-appointed expert Mr. Urdal. Mr. Urdal’s report is based on the UCDP database, an academic database which he uses to identify “direct conflict deaths” based on individual incidents. Using the UCDP database, Mr. Urdal arrives at an estimate of 14,663 direct civilian deaths that occurred in the entire DRC during the relevant period, between August 1998 and June 2003, including 5,769 in Ituri. This number includes civilians who “were killed as a result of deliberately targeted violence”, as well as “civilian collateral victims”. Mr. Urdal notes in his report that only 32 civilian deaths are coded in the UCDP database as having occurred in the DRC in clashes involving Ugandan troops. However, the Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it also held Uganda responsible for failing to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri in respect of violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law in the occupied territory (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 245, para. 220). On this basis, and unless Uganda establishes that particular deaths alleged by the DRC in Ituri were not caused by Uganda’s failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power, Uganda owes reparation for the loss of life resulting from the conflict in Ituri, irrespective of whether those deaths resulted from clashes involving Ugandan troops (see paragraph 78 above). With respect to lives lost outside Ituri, the UCDP database is less helpful, since, according to the expert, it is “not designed to determine the legal attribution of deaths”. - 47 - 150. Moreover, the Court notes the inherent limitations of the UCDP database as evidence in a judicial proceeding. The UCDP database is based mainly on press reports and reports by non-governmental organizations. The Court accords to such documents, if they are submitted directly in its proceedings, only limited probative value when they are not corroborated by other forms of evidence (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 204, para. 68; Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 190, para. 60; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 40-41, paras. 62-63; United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, pp. 9-10, paras. 12-13). Moreover, the numbers resulting from the UCDP database represent very conservative estimates and, in all likelihood, undercount the overall number of direct civilian deaths. This was confirmed by Mr. Urdal at the hearing, when he stated that the figure of 14,663 civilian deaths (that occurred in the entire DRC from August 1998 until June 2003 based on the UCDP database, including 5,769 in Ituri) was “almost certainly an underestimate” and that it would be impossible to determine the “margin of error”. His assessment regarding an undercount is to a certain extent substantiated by indications on the ACLED database for an overall number of 23,791 (civilian and military) deaths resulting from the conflict. 151. Although the information supplied by Mr. Urdal may provide an indication of an approximate number of direct civilian victims, the Court cannot base its assessment of the number of lives lost solely on the report of Mr. Urdal and the UCDP database. It is thus necessary to consider additional forms of evidence. 152. The Court has considered reports produced under the auspices of the United Nations and other documents prepared by independent third parties. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court relied on United Nations reports as “sufficient evidence of a reliable quality”, but only “to the extent that they [were] of probative value and [were] corroborated, if necessary, by other credible sources” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 239-240, paras. 205-208, and p. 249, para. 237). The precise evidentiary value accorded to any report, including those produced by United Nations entities, also depends on the methodology and amount of research underlying its preparation (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), p. 76, paras. 189-190; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 135-137, paras. 227-230). For that reason, the Court attaches particular credibility to the Mapping Report (see paragraph 125 above). Notably, all the information contained in the Mapping Report is corroborated by at least two independent sources, including witness interviews, and thus constitutes reliable evidence (Mapping Report, para. 10). However, even the Mapping Report “did not provide for in-depth investigations or gathering of evidence admissible in court, but rather [aims at giving] ‘the basis for the formulation of initial hypotheses of investigation by giving a sense of the scale of violations, detecting patterns and identifying potential leads or sources of evidence’” (ibid., para. 5). - 48 - 153. The Court has also taken into account other United Nations documents, such as the Secretary-General’s reports on the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter “MONUC”), bearing in mind that those reports do not always provide sufficient information as to the methodology adopted and are for the most part less rigorously verified than the Mapping Report. 154. The Court is of the view that the various reports of United Nations bodies, including the Mapping Report, provide a certain amount of information about specific incidents during the conflict, but do not provide a sufficient basis for the Court to arrive at an overall estimate of the number of deaths attributable to Uganda. The individual instances of persons killed that are listed in the Mapping Report are often described in imprecise terms (e.g. “several” or “numerous”). In other cases, the Mapping Report at least provides a range of the number of possible casualties. This is exemplified by the situation in Kisangani, which is documented comparatively well. The Mapping Report states that the fighting between Ugandan and Rwandan troops in Kisangani resulted in the death of “over 30” civilians in August 1999, “over 24 civilians” in May 2000, and “between 244 and 760” civilians in June 2000 (Mapping Report, paras. 361-363). While these numbers may suffice to cast doubt on the number of 920 civilian casualties claimed by the DRC in relation to these events, they provide the Court with certain ranges that inform its overall appreciation of the scale of loss of life. Moreover, since the Mapping Report was not designed to assign responsibility to particular actors, the numbers provided therein do not necessarily enable the Court to conclude that there was a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the internationally wrongful acts of Uganda and the instances of loss of life reported (see paragraphs 93 and 148 above). 155. The Court takes note of Uganda’s estimate that the Mapping Report identifies a total number of 2,291 lives lost with respect to which there can be a “reasonable suspicion” that they resulted from conduct that is attributable to Uganda. However, this assessment does not take into account the number of lives that were lost as a result of Uganda’s failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri, nor does it recognize that Uganda may owe reparation for certain deaths outside Ituri, even if the Mapping Report does not make specific reference to Uganda’s role in a particular incident. 156. The Court further considers that, even when adding together the civilian lives lost that were recorded by the Mapping Report as having occurred in Ituri and the lives lost in other parts of the DRC in which Uganda is implicated, the total number will probably not reflect the full extent of loss of life for which Uganda is responsible. The Mapping Report aims solely to document serious violations of international humanitarian and human rights law. The United Nations Secretary-General’s Second special report on MONUC dated 27 May 2003, for example, estimates that “more than 60,000” deaths occurred between 1999 and 2003 in Ituri alone (United Nations, doc. S/2003/566 of 27 May 2003, para. 10). While the Court cannot simply adopt a figure that appears, without supporting analysis, in a single report, the MONUC report nevertheless suggests that reliance solely on the Mapping Report would lead to an undercount of the number of lives lost. * - 49 - 157. In considering the deficiencies in the evidence presented by the DRC, the Court takes into account the extraordinary circumstances of the present case, which have restricted the ability of the DRC to produce evidence with greater probative value (see paragraphs 125-126 above). The Court recalls that from 1998 to 2003, the DRC did not exercise effective control over Ituri, due to belligerent occupation by Uganda. In the Corfu Channel case, the Court found that the exclusive territorial control that is normally exercised by a State within its frontiers has a bearing upon the methods of proof available to other States, which may be allowed to have a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact and circumstantial evidence (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 18, see paragraph 120 above). This general principle also applies to situations in which a State that would normally bear the burden of proof has lost effective control over the territory where crucial evidence is located on account of the belligerent occupation of its territory by another State. 158. Moreover, the DRC rightly emphasizes that the kind of evidence that is usually provided in cases concerning damage to persons, such as death certificates and hospital records, is often not available in remote areas lacking basic civilian infrastructure, and that this reality has also been recognized by the ICC. The Court recalls the finding of the ICC according to which victims of the same conflict were not always in a position to furnish documentary evidence (see paragraph 123 above). In those proceedings, however, many such victims did in fact provide death certificates and medical reports (The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, Trial Chamber II, Order for Reparations pursuant to Article 75 of the Statute, 24 March 2017, paras. 111-112). While it would not have been impossible for the DRC to produce such documentation for a certain number of persons in the present case, the Court recognizes the difficulties in obtaining such documentation for tens of thousands of alleged victims. 159. The Court is aware that detailed proof of specific events that have occurred in a devastating war, in remote areas, and almost two decades ago, is often not available. At the same time, the Court considers that notwithstanding the difficult situation in which the DRC found itself, more evidence relating to loss of life could be expected to have been collected since the Court delivered its 2005 Judgment (see paragraph 66 above). 160. The Court observes that the evidence before it, notably the Mapping Report, demonstrates that a large number of civilian casualties occurred in the DRC between 1998 and 2003 and that a significant part of these casualties can be linked to internationally wrongful acts of Uganda. However, there is insufficient evidence to support the DRC’s claim of 180,000 civilian deaths for which Uganda owes reparation. Nor can the Court base its conclusions on reparation on the 32 deaths that are coded in the UCDP database as having occurred in clashes involving Ugandan forces, if only because that figure does not cover deaths caused by armed groups in Ituri (see paragraph 78 above). 161. The Court considers that the analysis by Mr. Urdal, taken together with reports of various United Nations bodies, provides a more substantiated basis for assessing the number of lives lost for which Uganda owes reparation. According to Mr. Urdal, the UCDP database arrives at an estimate of 14,663 direct civilian deaths in the entire DRC, of which 5,769 occurred in Ituri and 8,894 occurred in areas outside of Ituri. In respect of deaths in Ituri, the Court has not been presented with evidence suggesting that those civilian deaths were due to a cause other than Uganda’s failure - 50 - to meet its obligations as an occupying Power. Moreover, Mr. Urdal has indicated that the UCDP database likely undercounted the total number of civilian deaths in Ituri. It follows that the number of civilian deaths in Ituri for which Uganda owes reparation likely exceeds the figure of 5,769 that Mr. Urdal derived from the UCDP database. Outside Ituri, the Court may not simply assume that the number of civilian deaths for which Uganda owes reparation corresponds to the 8,894 conflict-related deaths calculated by Mr. Urdal as having occurred in that area. On the one hand, given the involvement of many actors in the armed conflict outside Ituri, it cannot be presumed that all such deaths were caused by Uganda’s wrongful conduct. On the other hand, Mr. Urdal has observed that the UCDP database likely also undercounted civilian deaths outside Ituri. 162. Neither the materials presented by the DRC, nor the reports provided by the Court-appointed experts or prepared by United Nations bodies contain sufficient evidence to determine a precise or even an approximate number of civilian deaths for which Uganda owes reparation. Bearing these limitations in mind, the Court considers that the evidence presented to it suggests that the number of deaths for which Uganda owes reparation falls in the range of 10,000 to 15,000 persons. * 163. Turning to valuation, the Court considers that the DRC has not presented convincing evidence for its claim that the average amount awarded by Congolese courts to the families of victims of war crimes amounts to US$34,000. Expert reports submitted in the context of cases before the ICC that are related to the situation in the DRC suggest that this figure is too high (The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber VI, Reparations Order, 8 March 2021, para. 237; The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, Trial Chamber II, Order for Reparations pursuant to Article 75 of the Statute, 24 March 2017, para. 230). Therefore, the Court will not rely on the average amount proposed by the DRC for the loss of a life as a result of deliberate acts of violence against the civilian population, irrespective of whether judgments of domestic courts may generally serve as an appropriate guide in a case such as the present one. The Court also does not consider that the alternative fixed-sum rates suggested by the Court-appointed expert Mr. Senogles are suitable for the present proceedings. The expert derives these rates from the practice of the UNCC but does not provide a satisfactory rationale for applying those rates in the present case. The rate he suggests for loss of life is based on the UNCC’s Category C claims, which allowed individuals to claim actual losses up to US$100,000 on condition that they were documented by appropriate evidence of the circumstances and of the valuation of the claimed loss. The Court notes that, under the UNCC’s Category B claims, claimants could seek fixed amounts, ranging from US$2,500 per individual who suffered serious personal injury or whose spouse, child or parent died, to US$10,000 per family of a victim, in an expedited process where the standard of proof was lower. - 51 - 164. The methodology that the DRC proposes for the valuation of deaths that did not result from direct attacks on the civilian population is similar to that based on expected future life-time earnings. The Court notes that claims in respect of loss of life are usually based on an evaluation of the losses of the surviving heirs or successors, in addition to administrative expenses such as medical and burial costs (see Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Assessment of Amount of Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 249-250; Opinion in the Lusitania Cases, 1 November 1923, RIAA, Vol. VII, p. 35). This approach was considered by the EECC to be “a useful reference for assessing compensation in inter-State claims, if properly applied in appropriate cases”, which “may provide a rough measure of a State’s injury where a group of its nationals of known size has suffered similar injuries” (Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 669, para. 83). In addition to this material element of injury, the Court may award compensation for non-material (“moral” or “non-pecuniary”) elements of the injury caused to individuals and their surviving relatives as a result of the psychological harm they have suffered (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 333, para. 18). In the Diallo case, the Court found that non-material injury can be established without specific evidence and that any quantification of compensation for such injury necessarily rests on equitable considerations (ibid., pp. 334-335, paras. 21 and 24). However, for the purposes of the present proceedings, the Court does not consider that it would be appropriate to assign a higher value to lives lost in a deliberate attack on civilians, as the DRC proposes. It notes in this regard that the EECC considered that, in the situation before it, large per capita awards for non-material damage, which may be justified in individual cases, would be inappropriate in a situation involving significant numbers of unidentified and hypothetical victims (Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, pp. 664-665, paras. 61 and 64). * 165. Concerning the DRC’s request for compensation for 2,000 lives allegedly lost among members of its armed forces, the Court notes that the DRC has provided very little evidence in support of this claim. The Mapping Report gives a very limited indication in this regard, referring generally to losses suffered by the Congolese armed forces in 1999 and noting one incident in August 2000 (Mapping Report, paras. 385 and 392). The Court does not consider that other material submitted by the DRC, including the memoir of MLC leader Jean-Pierre Bemba, constitutes reliable evidence. The Court emphasizes that the more lenient evidentiary standard employed in view of the difficulty of obtaining documentary evidence in the DRC (see paragraphs 123-126 above) does not apply with equal force to the loss of life of military personnel, since a State can be expected to possess at least minimal records regarding its own armed forces, including those killed in action. The Court dismisses this claim of the DRC for lack of evidence, and therefore does not address any other question in relation to it. * - 52 - 166. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court notes that, while the available evidence is not sufficient to determine a reasonably precise or even an approximate number of civilian lives lost that are attributable to Uganda, it is nevertheless possible to identify a range of possibilities with respect to the number of such civilian lives lost (see paragraph 162 above). Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 135-156 above), the various methodologies proposed to determine the amount of compensation for a human life lost (see paragraphs 163-164 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69-126, 157-158 and 163-164 above), the Court will award compensation for the loss of civilian lives as part of a global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph 226 below). 2. Injuries to persons 167. The DRC also requests the Court to award US$54,464,000 in compensation for injuries and mutilations among the civilian population. 168. This claim includes injuries due to deliberate attacks on the civilian population, such as direct targeting, mutilation or torture, as well as injuries suffered as collateral damage resulting from military operations. The DRC submits that Uganda is responsible for 30,000 injured or mutilated civilians in Ituri. The DRC arrives at this number by dividing the 60,000 deaths which it claims to have occurred in Ituri by two. It claims that, of the 30,000 individuals injured in Ituri, 20,000 were harmed as a result of deliberate violence against civilians, while the remaining 10,000 were injured as a result of “other circumstances related to the conflicts”. The DRC further states that the alleged 20,000 individuals injured as a result of deliberate violence against civilians include 15,000 who were seriously injured or mutilated and 5,000 who suffered minor injuries. In other areas, the DRC maintains that 1,937 civilians were injured as a consequence of the fighting between Uganda and Rwanda in Kisangani, in addition to 203 civilians injured as a result of Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts in Beni, Butembo and Gemena. Thus, the overall number of injured victims put forward by the DRC is 32,140. To support this claim, the DRC invokes United Nations reports, particularly the Mapping Report, the Secretary-General’s Second special report on MONUC, the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, as well as the victim identification forms submitted by the DRC. However, the DRC also notes the “absence of more precise data on this point”. 169. In terms of valuation, the DRC submits that a distinction must be made between injuries resulting from deliberate attacks on civilians and those suffered “as collateral damage” resulting from military operations. The DRC requests the Court to award compensation to victims in the first category on the basis of the average sums allegedly awarded by Congolese courts to victims injured or mutilated in the context of the perpetration of serious international crimes, namely US$3,500 for serious injuries or mutilations and US$150 for minor injuries. With regard to “collateral” injuries, the DRC argues that the Court should award a minimum of US$100 per person. * - 53 - 170. Uganda asserts that the DRC has not produced adequate evidence to sustain its claim for compensation for injuries and mutilations among the civilian population. 171. Uganda argues that the DRC has derived the number of 30,000 injured persons in Ituri by arbitrarily dividing by two an uncorroborated mortality estimate included in a single United Nations report. Moreover, Uganda notes that the DRC has not established the identity of the persons alleged to have been injured and has failed to provide details such as the location, date or nature of the injury. In addition, Uganda maintains that the DRC has not demonstrated a sufficiently direct causal nexus between the personal injuries claimed and Uganda’s unlawful acts. In this regard, Uganda reiterates its criticism of the victim identification forms submitted by the DRC and notes that, in proceedings before the ICC, victims of the same conflict submitted corroborative documentation such as hospital records and forensic reports. 172. Uganda further submits that the DRC’s proposed valuation of damage for personal injuries is unsupported by evidence. Uganda argues that the DRC has provided only a handful of domestic judgments, mostly relating to rape and sexual violence, which do not corroborate the figures allegedly awarded by Congolese courts in relation to other injuries or mutilations. * * 173. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found Uganda responsible for torture and other forms of inhuman treatment of the civilian population, as well as for failing to distinguish between civilian and military targets and to protect the civilian population in fighting with other combatants, as well as for failing, as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri district (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part). Therefore, injuries among the civilian population which arise from these acts, as well as from the violation of the prohibition of the use of force and the principle of non-intervention (ibid., p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (1) of the operative part), fall within the scope of the 2005 Judgment and are, as a matter of principle, subject to the obligation to make reparation. 174. With regard to Ituri, the DRC puts forward a figure of 30,000 injured civilians. Taking its claim of 60,000 civilian lives lost in Ituri as a point of departure, the DRC estimates that the number of persons injured must amount to at least half that number. The Court notes that, during an armed conflict, the number of persons injured normally surpasses the number of lives lost and, on that basis, it is not excessive to estimate the number of injured persons as half of the number of deaths. However, the DRC has not presented sufficient evidence to establish that the number of lives lost in Ituri does in fact amount to 60,000 (see paragraphs 156 and 160 above). Therefore, the Court has no basis for using the number of 60,000 lives allegedly lost in Ituri as a reference even for an approximation of the number of civilians injured. The DRC acknowledges that its approach is due to the “absence of more precise data on this point”. 175. The Court has already noted that the victim identification forms submitted by the DRC cannot be considered reliable evidence and do not demonstrate the full extent of injuries claimed - 54 - (see paragraphs 146-147 above). By the DRC’s own count, no more than 1,353 of those forms record alleged injuries, including sexual violence. Apart from their minimal evidentiary value, the forms thus represent only a fraction of the injuries claimed by the DRC. 176. Furthermore, the Court observes that none of the relevant United Nations reports includes an overall estimate of the number of injured civilians. The United Nations Secretary-General’s Second special report on MONUC gives a broad estimate of lives lost and persons displaced in Ituri but notes in relation to other personal injuries only that “countless others have been left maimed or severely mutilated” (United Nations, doc. S/2003/566 of 27 May 2003, para. 10). Similarly, the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri contains some examples of instances where civilians were left injured, but does not provide a basis for the Court to reach an overall estimate (United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, paras. 74-75 and 93). The Mapping Report also contains examples of incidents involving injuries resulting from deliberate attacks on the civilian population, including through torture and mutilation (Mapping Report, paras. 369, 407-408, 413-414 and 422). However, the Mapping Report acknowledges that “most effort had to be focused on incidents involving the deaths of a large number of victims” (ibid., para. 535). The sum of the instances identified in the Mapping Report amounts to hundreds of injured civilians, a number which the Court finds implausibly low, particularly given the protracted and pervasive violence in Ituri. 177. More reliable estimates exist with regard to the magnitude of injuries resulting from the fighting between Ugandan and Rwandan troops in Kisangani. The Mapping Report states that the fighting between UPDF and Rwandan troops in Kisangani in August 1999 resulted in over 100 wounded civilians (ibid., para. 361). The report of the United Nations inter-agency assessment mission to Kisangani (hereinafter the “Inter-Agency Report”) notes that an estimated 1,700 people were injured in clashes between Ugandan and Rwandan troops in the period from 5 to 10 June 2000 (United Nations, doc. S/2000/1153 of 4 December 2000, para. 57). This figure is broadly corroborated by the Mapping Report, which states that “over 1,000” civilians were wounded in Kisangani during this encounter (Mapping Report, para. 363). The Court can therefore conclude that the number of 1,937 injured civilians put forward by the DRC in relation to Kisangani falls within a plausible range. The Court is not in a position to apportion to Uganda a specific share of the total damage related to persons injured in Kisangani. 178. The Mapping Report also refers to relevant events in other areas of the DRC. For example, the Mapping Report indicates that Ugandan troops in Beni were “arbitrarily detain[ing] large numbers of people and subject[ing] them to torture and various other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatments” (ibid., para. 349). In addition, the Report mentions the torture of civilians and a human rights activist in the town of Buta (ibid., para. 402). However, while these examples indicate that deliberate attacks against and mistreatment of civilians by Ugandan forces, sometimes amounting to torture, were not confined to Ituri or Kisangani, the Mapping Report cannot serve as a reliable basis to determine the extent of such acts in other locations for the purpose of awarding compensation. 179. On the basis of the evidence reviewed, the Court is unable to determine, with a sufficient level of certainty, even an approximate estimate of the number of civilians injured by internationally wrongful acts of Uganda. The Court notes that the DRC has failed to produce appropriate evidence to corroborate its claim that 30,000 civilians were injured in Ituri. However, the Court reiterates its - 55 - conclusions with regard to the difficult circumstances prevailing in the DRC and their effect on the ability of the Applicant to furnish the kind of evidence normally expected in claims relating to personal injuries (see paragraphs 120-126 above). The Court considers that the available evidence at least confirms the occurrence of a significant number of injuries in many localities. * 180. Regarding valuation, the Court notes that the DRC claims fixed amounts of US$3,500 per person for injuries resulting from deliberate attacks on civilians, and US$150 for minor deliberate injuries. With regard to “collateral” injuries, the DRC seeks a minimum of US$100 per person. The DRC does not provide convincing evidence that these figures are derived from the average amounts awarded by Congolese courts in the context of the perpetration of serious international crimes. The Court is mindful of the fact that the proposed sum for “collateral” injuries is intended to cover medical costs and loss of income and only to a lesser extent compensation for non-material harm, whereas injuries and mutilation from direct attacks on civilians would justify higher awards because of the associated trauma and psychological harm. However, large awards for non-material harm may be inappropriate in situations involving significant numbers of unidentified and hypothetical victims (see paragraph 164 above). Furthermore, the Court notes that it is difficult to draw any distinction between serious and minor injuries since there is no basis to determine their respective proportions. * 181. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court notes that the available evidence for personal injuries is less substantial than that for loss of life, and that it is impossible to determine, even approximately, the number of persons injured as to whom Uganda owes reparation. The Court can only find that a significant number of such injuries occurred and that local patterns can be detected (see paragraph 179 above). Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 168-178 above), the methodologies proposed to assign a value to personal injuries (see paragraph 180 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69-126 above), the Court will award compensation for personal injuries as part of a global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph 226 below). - 56 - 3. Rape and sexual violence 182. The DRC seeks US$33,458,000 in compensation for 1,710 victims of rape and sexual violence in Ituri and for 30 victims of such acts in other parts of the DRC, including Kisangani. 183. The DRC acknowledges that the Congolese Commission of Inquiry was able to identify no more than 342 cases of rape in Ituri, as recorded by the victim identification forms. The DRC categorizes these cases into 122 cases of rape (which the DRC refers to as “viol simple”) and 220 cases of “aggravated rape”. The DRC then multiplies the number of 342 by five and arrives at 1,710 victims (610 cases of rape and 1,100 cases of “aggravated rape”). The DRC justifies this method of calculation by arguing that sexual violence was a widespread weapon of war in Ituri and that it is commonly underreported because of the social stigma attached to it. To this figure, the DRC adds 18 cases of rape in Kisangani, 10 in Butembo, and two in Beni, as reported by the Congolese Commission of Inquiry. 184. With respect to valuation, the DRC claims that, in the context of serious international crimes, Congolese courts have on average awarded sums of US$12,600 in cases of rape and US$23,200 in cases of “aggravated rape”. The DRC further submits that the non-material injury suffered by the victims of sexual violence is particularly significant and that it is aggravated by the frequent ostracization of the victims by their family members or society in general. * 185. Uganda argues that instances of rape and sexual violence are not mentioned in the 2005 Judgment, and that, therefore, the DRC should be precluded from claiming compensation for such acts. 186. Uganda also maintains that the DRC has failed to produce evidence to support the number of rapes alleged to have occurred in Ituri or elsewhere. In this regard, Uganda reiterates its criticism of the victim identification forms and the use of multipliers. 187. Uganda states that the DRC provides no authority for the proposition that compensation for sexual violence should be determined by reference to decisions rendered by Congolese courts. Moreover, Uganda is of the view that the decisions of those courts do not support the average figures put forward by the DRC. * * - 57 - 188. The Court notes that, in its 2005 Judgment, Uganda was found to be responsible for violations of its obligations under international humanitarian law and international human rights law, including by acts of torture and other forms of inhuman treatment (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211). International criminal tribunals as well as human rights courts and bodies have recognized that rape and other acts of sexual violence committed in the context of armed conflict may amount to grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions or violations of the laws and customs of war, and that they may also constitute a form of torture and inhuman treatment (The Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT-96-23 & IT-966-23/1-A, International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Appeals Chamber, Judgement of 12 June 2002, pp. 46-47, paras. 149-151; Mrs. A. v. Bosnia and Herzegovina (United Nations, Committee against Torture, Communication No. 854/2017, decision of 2 August 2019, UN doc. CAT/C/67/D/854/2017), para. 7.3; as to regional practice, see e.g. African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, General Comment No. 4 on the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: The Right to Redress for Victims of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Punishment or Treatment (Article 5), pp. 17-18, paras. 57-58). The Court therefore considers that Uganda can be required to pay compensation for acts of rape and sexual violence, to the extent substantiated by the relevant evidence, even though such acts were not mentioned specifically in the 2005 Judgment (see paragraph 131 above). 189. Concerning the evidentiary basis of the DRC’s claim, the Court reiterates that the victim identification forms provided by the DRC are of little probative value (see paragraphs 146-147 above). The Court is mindful that victims of sexual violence often experience psychological trauma and social stigma, and that, therefore, such violence is frequently underreported and notoriously difficult to document (see EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, pp. 675-676, paras. 104-105). However, the Court does not find it appropriate to overcome such evidentiary challenges by using unsubstantiated multipliers. Therefore, even if the 342 cases of sexual violence which are, according to the DRC, supported by the victim identification forms were deemed to be adequately substantiated, the Court could not accept the number of 1,740 such cases claimed by the DRC as being sufficiently proven. 190. The Court considers that it is impossible to derive even a broad estimate of the number of victims of rape and other forms of sexual violence from the reports and other data available to it. This absence of adequate documentation has also been recognized by various United Nations reports. The MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, for example, notes that “[t]he exact number of female victims of rape or sexual slavery is impossible to estimate at this time” (United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 1). Similarly, the Mapping Report acknowledges its own shortcomings with regard to sexual violence: “Aware that such a methodology prevents full justice from being done to the numerous victims of sexual violence and fails to reflect appropriately the widespread use of this form of violence by all armed groups involved in the different conflicts in the DRC, it was decided from the outset to seek information and documents supporting the perpetration of sexual violence in certain contexts rather than seeking to confirm each individual case, the victims being unfortunately too numerous and dispersed across the whole country.” (Mapping Report, para. 535.) - 58 - 191. However, the Court finds that it is beyond doubt that rape and other forms of sexual violence were committed in the DRC on a large and widespread scale. The Mapping Report notes the “widespread use of this form of violence by all armed groups” and reiterates that the victims were “numerous” (Mapping Report, see also paras. 35 and 530). It provides various examples of rape in Ituri during the period of occupation involving members of the UPDF and other armed groups (ibid., paras. 405, 408, 409, 416, 419) and outside Ituri by members of the UPDF (ibid., paras. 330, 443). The MONUC special report on the events in Ituri observes that in that area “[c]ountless women were abducted and became ‘war wives’, while others were raped or sexually abused before being released” (United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 1). The ICC has found that rape and sexual violence occurred in Ituri during the period in which the district was occupied by Uganda, and that they amounted to a “common practice” (The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber VI, Judgment of 8 July 2019, paras. 293, 940-948, 1196 and 1199). * 192. Regarding the valuation of the harm suffered by victims of rape and sexual violence, the Court finds that the DRC has not provided sufficient evidence that would corroborate the alleged average amounts awarded by Congolese courts of US$23,200 per victim for “aggravated rape” and US$12,600 for rape. The Court takes note of an expert report submitted to the ICC relating to the situation in the DRC, which indicates that there is an emerging standard in Congolese courts of US$5,000 per victim being awarded in cases of rape (The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber VI, Reparations Order, 8 March 2021, para. 238). * 193. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court notes that the available evidence for rape and sexual violence is less substantial than that for loss of life, and that it is not possible to determine even an approximate number of cases of rape and sexual violence attributable to Uganda. The Court can only find that a significant number of such injuries occurred (see paragraphs 190-191 above). Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 183-189 above), the methodologies proposed to assign a value to rape and sexual violence (see paragraph 192 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69-126 above), the Court will award compensation for rape and sexual violence as part of a global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph 226 below). - 59 - 4. Recruitment and deployment of child soldiers 194. The DRC claims US$30,000,000 as compensation for the recruitment of 2,500 child soldiers by Uganda and by armed groups supported by Uganda. 195. The DRC’s claim is based on two specific instances of alleged recruitment of child soldiers, which it supports with three distinct pieces of evidence. First, the DRC refers to the United Nations Secretary-General’s Sixth report on MONUC which indicates that, in 2000, “a considerable number” of children had been taken for military training to Uganda, about 600 of whom were about to be transferred to the custody of UNICEF or non-governmental organizations (United Nations, doc. S/2001/128 of 12 February 2001, para. 66). Second, the DRC relies on witness testimony before the ICC in the Lubanga case, allegedly referring to the same incident and putting the number of transferred children at 700. Third, the DRC invokes the Mapping Report, which notes that the MLC was engaged in the recruitment of child soldiers with “the backing of the Ugandan army”, that the MLC “admitted to having 1,800 [child soldiers] within its ranks” (Mapping Report, para. 697) and that “all the armed groups in Ituri (UPC, FNI, FRPI, FAPC and PUSIC) are alleged to have recruited thousands of children along ethnic lines” (ibid., para. 429). 196. The DRC requests a fixed sum of US$12,000 per child soldier, deriving this figure from the alleged practice of Congolese courts. * 197. Uganda asserts that the number of 600 children indicated in the Secretary-General’s Sixth report on MONUC is contradicted by the Mapping Report. Moreover, Uganda argues that the same witness in the Lubanga case on whom the DRC relies indicated that a significant percentage of the children involved in this incident were over the age of 15 and could therefore not be classified as child soldiers. 198. Uganda also submits that the Mapping Report refers only to the recruitment of child soldiers by the MLC and that there is no evidence either in the Mapping Report or otherwise presented by the DRC demonstrating that the child soldiers in question were recruited by Uganda or trained in UPDF training camps. According to Uganda, the DRC claims compensation for the recruitment of child soldiers only with respect to Ituri. Uganda points out that the MLC had almost no presence in Ituri. In addition, Uganda maintains that it cannot be held responsible for acts of the MLC outside occupied Ituri and that the Court, in its 2005 Judgment, held that the MLC was neither created nor controlled by Uganda. Moreover, Uganda highlights that the DRC did not list the MLC among the armed groups for whose acts it claims reparation. With regard to valuation, Uganda objects to the DRC’s method of assessing the injury suffered by child soldiers by reference to the amount awarded by Congolese courts for acts that the DRC considers have caused similar harm. * * - 60 - 199. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that “there [was] convincing evidence of the training in UPDF training camps of child soldiers and of the UPDF’s failure to prevent the recruitment of child soldiers in areas under its control” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 210). The DRC’s claim is thus encompassed by the 2005 Judgment. 200. The Court finds that there is limited evidence supporting the DRC’s claims regarding the number of child soldiers recruited or deployed. The Court notes that the Secretary-General’s Sixth report on MONUC found that, in the year 2000, 600 children who had apparently been transferred for military training to Uganda were soon to be repatriated by humanitarian organizations. In particular, the report recalls: “As indicated in my 6 December 2000 report, a considerable number of Congolese children were taken from the Bunia, Beni and Butembo region, apparently for military training in Uganda (para. 75). Concern has been expressed at the possibility that these children will be deployed back to the Democratic Republic of the Congo as soldiers. As the present report was being finalized, information was received that 600 children would be transferred to the custody of humanitarian organizations next week.” (United Nations, doc. S/2001/128 of 12 February 2001, para. 66). Furthermore, the Court takes note of the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, according to which “[t]housands of children aged from 7 to 17 were drawn forcibly or voluntarily into armed groups” (United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 1). This report contains various indications which confirm that a significant number of children were recruited or deployed as child soldiers in Ituri (ibid., paras. 39, 147 and 148). The Mapping Report also indicates that “[a]ccording to child protection agencies working in the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) of children, at least 30,000 children were recruited or used by the armed forces or groups during the conflict” (Mapping Report, para. 673). 201. The Court takes note of Uganda’s reliance on the Mapping Report, according to which, ultimately, only 163 children were repatriated (ibid., para. 429). However, the relevant section of the Mapping Report notes that in 2000 “at least 163 of these children were sent to Uganda to undergo military training at a UPDF camp in Kyankwanzi before finally being repatriated to Ituri by UNICEF in February 2001” (ibid.). The Court reads the Mapping Report to mean that 163 out of a larger number of children were ultimately repatriated by UNICEF to Ituri in 2001. 202. This reading of the Mapping Report is supported by witness testimony concerning the same events in the Lubanga trial at the ICC. In this case, witness P-0116 recalled that, in 2000, the accused had sent children to Uganda: “P-0116, who was based in Bunia during the period shortly before the timeframe of the charges, testified he was told that the accused had sent children to Uganda during the summer of 2000, and that Mr Lubanga was with them at the camp . . . Some of those who witnessed this transfer of about 700 youths to Uganda told P-0116 they had been - 61 - taken on Ugandan cargo planes, and it appeared that the accused was in contact with the Ugandan military authorities who gave him the necessary military support.” (The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, ICC-01/04-01/06, Trial Chamber I, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 14 March 2012, paras. 1031 and 1033.) 203. The Court notes Uganda’s point that P-0116 was not an eyewitness and recalls that it affords limited evidentiary weight to hearsay testimony (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 42, para. 68; Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 16-17). However, the Court is also mindful of the fact that the witness was assessed as credible by an ICC Trial Chamber and that his or her description of the events matches the one set out in the Mapping Report. 204. Regarding the alleged support provided by Uganda for the recruitment and deployment of child soldiers by the MLC, the Mapping Report notes that “[t]he MLC’s army, the ALC, with the backing of the Ugandan Army, the UPDF, allegedly also recruited children, primarily in Mbandaka, Equateur Province” (Mapping Report, para. 697). This report also mentions that, in 2001, the MLC admitted to having 1,800 child soldiers within its ranks (ibid.). The Court is not convinced by Uganda’s argument that the DRC has limited its claim geographically to Ituri. While it is true that some parts of the DRC’s Memorial give the impression that all 2,500 instances of the recruitment of child soldiers are claimed to have occurred in Ituri, other sections note that “such practices were also reported in other regions, including the province of Equateur”. * 205. Concerning the valuation of the harm caused with respect to child soldiers, the Court observes that the DRC did not provide evidence for the sums allegedly awarded by Congolese courts. The Court further notes that the Court-appointed expert suggested basing the valuation of the injury suffered by child soldiers on an analogy with the UNCC Category E claims. However, this category pertained to individuals who had been taken as hostages or were illegally detained, and did not, therefore, reflect the material injury and psychological trauma sustained by child soldiers in the DRC. The Court further observes that, in the Lubanga case, the ICC Trial Chamber set the amount of compensation for such a victim ex aequo et bono at US$8,000, taking into account, inter alia, decisions of Congolese courts (The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, ICC-01/04-01/06, Trial Chamber II, Decision Setting the Size of the Reparations Award for which Thomas Lubanga Dyilo is Liable, 21 December 2017, para. 259). In the framework of the present reparation proceedings, these methodologies do not provide a sufficient basis for assigning a specific valuation of damage in respect of a child soldier. * - 62 - 206. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court notes that the available evidence for the recruitment and deployment of child soldiers provides a range of the possible number of victims in relation to whom Uganda owes reparation (see paragraphs 200-204 above). Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 195-204 above), the methodologies proposed to assign a value to the damage caused by the recruitment and deployment of child soldiers (see paragraph 205 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69-126 above), the Court will award compensation for the recruitment and deployment of child soldiers as part of a global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph 226 below). 5. Displacement of populations 207. The DRC claims US$186,853,800 in compensation for the flight and displacement of parts of the population in Ituri and elsewhere in the DRC. 208. The DRC estimates that 600,000 persons were forced to flee their town or village as a consequence of Uganda’s failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri between 1998 and 2003. To substantiate its claim, the DRC refers, in particular, to the Secretary-General’s Second special report on MONUC, the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, and the Mapping Report. 209. The DRC further submits that many people were forced to flee in order to escape the impact of the war in other parts of the DRC. However, the DRC also asserts that since it would “not [be] possible to derive any exact figures from” the records, it has limited its claim to 433 cases of displacement in Beni, 93 in Butembo and 12 in Gemena. These instances are allegedly identified and recorded in the victim identification forms collected by the Congolese Commission of Inquiry. In addition, relying on the Inter-Agency Report, the DRC asserts that 68,000 persons were internally displaced as a result of the confrontations between Ugandan and Rwandan troops in Kisangani. The DRC thus claims compensation for a total of 668,538 displaced persons. 210. Regarding the valuation of these cases of flight and displacement, the DRC submits that a distinction must be made between the situation of persons who fled their homes in order to escape deliberate acts of violence against civilian populations and the situation of those who were driven from their homes by the fighting. According to the DRC, the first of these scenarios mainly occurred in Ituri and should be compensated by a sum of US$300 per person, amounting to a total of US$180,000,000. The second scenario allegedly applies to those who fled their homes for shorter periods in areas outside Ituri, mainly in Kisangani, and the ensuing damage should be valued at US$100 per person, amounting to a total of US$6,853,800. The DRC explains that these sums are meant to reflect the material harm ([days of displacement] × [daily cost of living]) combined with a lump sum for moral injury suffered. * - 63 - 211. Uganda criticizes the DRC’s claim for being based on broad estimates and not on a case-by-case analysis relating to specific groups of persons displaced in identifiable locations on specific dates. Uganda asserts that the DRC derives the number of allegedly displaced persons in Ituri from an unsubstantiated estimate in a single United Nations report. Furthermore, Uganda submits that there is no evidence indicating that such displacements occurred as a result of deliberate efforts by Uganda to make civilians flee or were a direct result of Uganda’s violation of the jus ad bellum. According to Uganda, with respect to Ituri, the DRC has also failed to show that Uganda’s exercise of due diligence obligations would have sufficed to prevent the alleged displacement. 212. Regarding the situation in Kisangani, Uganda highlights that the Mapping Report did not adopt the estimate of 68,000 displaced persons contained in the Inter-Agency Report, stating merely that “thousands of people” had been displaced. With respect to displacement in other parts of the DRC, Uganda reiterates that the victim identification forms are not credible evidence. 213. With regard to the valuation of the injury resulting from the displacement of persons, Uganda submits that the DRC has not explained, other than by asserting that they are reasonable, why the amounts of US$300 and US$100 should, respectively, be the measure of damage for persons displaced as a result of deliberate violence and for other displaced persons. * * 214. The Court reiterates that, in its 2005 Judgment, it held Uganda responsible for indiscriminate and deliberate attacks on the civilian population and for its failure to protect the civilian population in the course of fighting against other troops (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211). In addition, the Court found that Uganda did not comply with its obligations as an occupying Power and incited ethnic conflict in Ituri (ibid.). Uganda is under an obligation to make reparation for any displacement of civilians that was caused in a sufficiently direct and certain way by these acts (see paragraphs 78 and 93 above). This includes cases of displacement that have a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus to Uganda’s violation of the jus ad bellum, even if they were not accompanied by violations of international humanitarian law or human rights obligations (EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 731, para. 322). 215. The Court recognizes that a large majority of cases of displacement for which the DRC seeks compensation occurred in Ituri. In this regard, the Court takes note of the Secretary-General’s Second special report on MONUC which states that, “[a]ccording to the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, between 500,000 and 600,000 internally displaced persons” were dispersed throughout Ituri as at May 2003 (United Nations, doc. S/2003/566 of 27 May 2003, para. 10). While this number appears plausible given the magnitude of the conflict and its impact on Ituri, the Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it decided not to take into account elements of United Nations reports which rely only on second-hand sources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 225, para. 159). Moreover, - 64 - the Court cannot confirm such a large number based on an estimate from a single report. The Court reiterates that, in the present context, it considers United Nations reports as reliable evidence only “to the extent that they are of probative value and are corroborated, if necessary, by other credible sources” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 239, para. 205). 216. The Court observes that the number of displaced persons claimed by the DRC finds support in the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, which notes that “[m]ore than 600,000 [were] forced to flee from their homes” between January 2002 and December 2003 (United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 40). However, the MONUC special report does not indicate the source for its estimate. In addition, the Court points out that the period covered by the report extends to December 2003 and thus a few months beyond the temporal scope of Uganda’s occupation of Ituri and the 2005 Judgment. An earlier report prepared by the Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the DRC, to which the Court also referred in its 2005 Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 240, para. 209), notes that ethnic tensions fuelled by Uganda had displaced 50,000 persons by August 2000 (United Nations, docs. A/55/403 of 20 September 2000, para. 26, and E/CN.4/2001/40 of 1 February 2001, para. 31). While this report gives a useful indication of how the situation in Ituri evolved during the early stages of the conflict, it does not provide data for subsequent years and can, as such, neither corroborate nor disprove the figure claimed by the DRC. 217. A report prepared in July 2003 by the non-governmental organization Human Rights Watch (hereinafter “HRW”), which the Court referred to in its 2005 Judgment, also adopts the figure of 500,000 displaced civilians (HRW, “Ituri: Covered in Blood. Ethnically Targeted Violence in Northeastern DR Congo”, p. 50). However, the Court notes that the source used for this figure is cited as “Estimates of the UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), January 2003” and is thus likely the same as the one relied on by the Secretary-General’s Second special report on MONUC. Consequently, the Court cannot rule out the possibility that all three reports indicating a number of more than 500,000 displaced persons were based on the same source, whose methodology, accuracy and probative value the Court is unable to ascertain. 218. The Court acknowledges, however, that additional evidence has been presented with regard to specific instances of large-scale displacement in Ituri. The MONUC special report on the events in Ituri describes, in detail, large-scale operations against Lendu villages by UPDF soldiers and allied militias from February to April 2002 in the Irumu region, resulting in 40,000 displaced persons (United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 42). Moreover, the special report recalls how 2,000 individuals were displaced as a result of UPDF troops failing to stop an attack on the town of Mabanga by local Hema and Gegere militias in August 2002 (ibid., para. 45). According to the same report, the subsequent fighting in Bunia, in which the UPDF was involved, and particularly the massacres conducted by the Union des patriotes congolais (hereinafter the “UPC”), resulted in the displacement of 10,000 families (ibid., para. 49). Finally, the special report describes the large-scale “Chikana Namukono” military operation that was conducted by the UPC between January and May 2003 in the Lipri, Bambu and Kobu area, and which forced 60,000 civilians to flee into the surrounding bush (ibid., para. 70). The Court notes that the description of these events is not based on third-party estimates but on eyewitness testimony collected by MONUC human rights investigators. In addition, the Court observes that the Mapping Report mentions a further instance in the Irumu region in September 2002, where the killing of Hema by troops of the Forces de résistance patriotique en Ituri (hereinafter the “FRPI”) resulted in “several thousand” displaced persons (Mapping Report, para. 413). - 65 - 219. More specific evidence is also available concerning the displacement of persons in locations outside Ituri, particularly from the city of Kisangani. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court recognized that “[a]ccording to the report of the inter-agency assessment mission to Kisangani (established pursuant to paragraph 14 of Security Council resolution 1304 (2000) (doc. S/2000/1153 of 4 December 2000, paras. 15-16)), the armed conflict between Ugandan and Rwandan forces in Kisangani led to ‘fighting spreading into residential areas and indiscriminate shelling occurring for 6 days . . . 65,000 residents were forced to flee the fighting and seek refuge in nearby forests’” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 240, para. 208). 220. The Court referred to this section of the Inter-Agency Report to establish that Uganda had breached various obligations under international law, and not to establish the precise extent of the damage caused by these violations. In this regard, notwithstanding the Court’s earlier observations regarding the Inter-Agency Report, it cannot ignore new evidence that has since emerged. The Mapping Report adopts a more rigorous methodology than the Inter-Agency Report (see paragraph 152 above). In particular, the Mapping Report did not adopt the number of 68,000 displaced persons in relation to the “Six-Day War” of June 2000 in Kisangani but more cautiously noted that the encounter caused “thousands of people to be displaced” (Mapping Report, para. 363). In the absence of further evidence, the Court cannot therefore adopt the number of 68,000 persons displaced in Kisangani, as claimed by the DRC. 221. The Court recalls that the displacements in Kisangani were the result of the fighting between Ugandan and Rwandan troops. Having considered the available evidence, the Court attaches particular weight to the conclusion in the Mapping Report that “thousands” of persons were displaced from Kisangani as a result of these confrontations. In the view of the DRC, Uganda owes reparation for all the damage in Kisangani, because that damage had both cumulative and complementary causes. Uganda, on the other hand, maintains that the two States separately committed internationally wrongful acts and that each is responsible only for the damage caused by its own action. The Court considers that each State is responsible for damage in Kisangani that was caused by its own armed forces acting independently. However, based on the very limited evidence available to it, the Court can form only a general appreciation of the total number of persons displaced by the conflict in Kisangani. Under these circumstances, the Court is not in a position to apportion to Uganda a specific share of the total number of displaced persons. It has taken into account the available evidence on the displacement of persons from Kisangani in arriving at the global sum awarded for all injuries to persons (see paragraph 106 above and paragraph 226 below). 222. Regarding displacements that have allegedly occurred in other parts of the DRC, the Court notes that the only evidence submitted by the DRC consists of the victim identification forms. These forms can be accorded only very limited probative value (see paragraphs 146-147 above). 223. In conclusion, the Court finds that the evidence presented by the DRC does not establish a sufficiently certain number of displaced persons for whom compensation could be awarded separately. The evidence does, however, indicate a range of possibilities resulting from - 66 - substantiated estimates. The Court is convinced that Uganda owes reparation in relation to a significant number of displaced persons, taking into account that displacements in Ituri alone appear to have been in the range of 100,000 to 500,000 persons (see paragraphs 215-218 above). * 224. Regarding the valuation of loss resulting from displacement, the Court sees no basis to draw a distinction between two types of displacement, as suggested by the DRC, based on whether the victims fled their homes in order to escape deliberate acts of violence against civilian populations or were driven from their homes by the fighting. Considerations more relevant to the valuation of damage caused by displacement would include the length of time that an individual was displaced and the difficulty of the circumstances endured during displacement. These are matters as to which the DRC did not offer evidence. The Court also notes that the DRC does not sufficiently explain the basis for the figures of US$300 and US$100 sought for the two types of displacement that it identifies. * 225. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court notes that the available evidence for the displacement of persons provides a range of the possible number of victims attributable to Uganda (see paragraph 223 above). Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 208-222 above), possible methodologies to assign a value to the displacement of a person (see paragraph 224 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69-126 above), the Court will award compensation for the displacement of persons as part of a global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph 226 below). 6. Conclusion 226. On the basis of all the preceding considerations (see paragraphs 133-225 above, specifically 166, 181, 193, 206 and 225), and given that Uganda has not established that particular injuries alleged by the DRC in Ituri were not caused by its failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power, the Court finds it appropriate to award a single global sum of US$225,000,000 for the loss of life and other damage to persons. B. Damage to property 227. The DRC also maintains that Uganda must make reparation in the form of compensation for damage to property. - 67 - 228. In the operative part of its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that “the Republic of Uganda, by the conduct of its armed forces, which . . . destroyed villages and civilian buildings, failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets and to protect the civilian population in fighting with other combatants . . . incited ethnic conflict and failed to take measures to put an end to such conflict; as well as by its failure, as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri district, violated its obligations under international human rights law and international humanitarian law” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part); and “that the Republic of Uganda, by engaging in military activities against the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the latter’s territory, by occupying Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic, economic and financial support to irregular forces having operated on the territory of the DRC, violated the principle of non-use of force in international relations and the principle of non-intervention” (ibid., p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (1) of the operative part). * * 229. The DRC asks that Uganda pay US$239,971,970 for damage to property. This claim consists of several elements, which are detailed below. 230. With respect to damage in Ituri, the DRC claims US$12,956,200 for damage to private dwellings, US$21,250,000 for damage to civilian infrastructure, in particular schools, health facilities and administrative buildings, and US$7,318,413 for damage due to looting. Together these elements of the claim amount to US$41,524,613. 231. The DRC alleges that 8,693 private dwellings, 200 schools, 50 health facilities and 50 administrative buildings were destroyed in Ituri. 232. Regarding damage to property outside Ituri, the DRC claims US$25,628,075 for damage to private dwellings and civilian infrastructure in places where the UPDF operated (Kisangani, Beni, Butembo and Gemena). After initially revising this figure downward in response to questions asked by the Court, in its final submissions the DRC ultimately reverted to claiming the original amount. In addition, the DRC claims US$97,412,090 for damage to its electric company, Société nationale d’électricité (hereinafter “SNEL”), and US$69,417,192 for damage to certain property of its armed forces. Together, these elements of the claim amount, according to the DRC, to US$198,447,357. - 68 - 233. To particularize its claims concerning private dwellings and looting, the DRC relies on aggregate tables allegedly prepared on the basis of data contained in its victim identification forms. The DRC’s claims for damage to infrastructure are based on United Nations reports, while those concerning SNEL and the property of the Congolese armed forces rely on summary reports prepared by these entities. The DRC also proposes that the Court, in determining its claim regarding damage to property, use an “approach based on approximate number and cost”. 234. The DRC estimates the value of a “basic” private dwelling at US$300, dwellings of “medium” quality at US$5,000, and “luxury” dwellings at US$10,000. It considers that 80 per cent of the private houses destroyed were “basic”. The DRC submits that the value of each school and health facility should be set at US$75,000 and the value of each administrative building at US$50,000. Regarding looting, the DRC bases both its claim for the extent of the damage suffered and its valuation on records of its investigators, as reflected in the above-mentioned aggregate tables. * 235. Uganda submits that the DRC has failed “to sustain its burden of proving these property claims with convincing evidence that shows, with a high degree of certainty, the exact injury suffered as a result of specific internationally wrongful acts of Uganda, or the valuation of the alleged injury”. Uganda stresses that this standard also pertains to damage to property in Ituri, where its status as an occupying Power “does not relieve the DRC of its burden . . . to prove specific harms inflicted by other actors in Ituri, prove specific measures that Uganda failed to take as an occupying Power, and prove the causal nexus between such omissions and the harms”. Uganda alleges that the DRC has not provided sufficient documentation or information as evidence to prove its claims or to show a causal nexus with Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts. It also argues that the credibility of the numbers in the summary tables submitted by the DRC is undermined by arithmetic errors and contradictory information. 236. Uganda considers that the DRC’s claim relating to the property of the Congolese armed forces was not raised at any time during the merits phase and therefore cannot serve as a basis for an award of damages in this phase, adding that the claim would, in any case, fail for lack of proof. 237. Responding to the DRC’s argument that the Court would need to take the “specific circumstances and characteristics” of the case into account, Uganda points out that victims at the ICC produced residence certificates, habitation certificates and other documents of a similar kind. Uganda also emphasizes that the EECC “was furnished with engineering studies, building-by-building assessment of damaged structures, aerial and ground-level photography and affidavits by public works officials and residents” and that the DRC has not produced similar evidence. - 69 - 238. Concerning the valuation of dwellings in Ituri, Uganda notes that the Court-appointed expert Mr. Senogles confirmed that the values asserted by the DRC are “not evidenced and not explained”. Uganda maintains that the DRC would have been in a position to submit at least some supporting materials in the form of bills, receipts or other documents that might corroborate the alleged costs. It voices similar concerns with regard to the alleged value of administrative buildings, as well as property damage outside Ituri. Moreover, Uganda asserts that the “evidentiary discount factors” applied by Mr. Senogles (see paragraph 239 below) cannot be used to remedy this alleged lack of evidence. Finally, Uganda submits that values asserted for allegedly looted individual property are too high and not based on corroborating information. * 239. The Court-appointed expert Mr. Senogles was asked under the terms of reference to respond to the following question: “Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the 2005 Judgment, what is the approximate number and type of properties damaged or destroyed by Ugandan armed forces in the relevant period in the district of Ituri and in June 2000 in Kisangani?” The expert bases his factual assessments exclusively on the claims and allegations made in the Memorial of the DRC, without considering additional sources of information, such as United Nations reports. For private dwellings in Ituri, the expert simply adopts the number of luxury, medium-quality and basic dwellings set out in one of the aggregate tables presented by the DRC (26, 199 and 13,384 respectively), and multiplies those figures by the unitary values put forward by the DRC itself. For other claims, the expert applies “evidentiary discount factors” to certain aspects of the claim in order “to take account of the inherent uncertainty in the way [the] claim has been put forward”. As a general matter, the expert notes “the absence of granular detail or evidence in respect of each individual property” but also finds it “understandable . . . for the damages claim in respect of thousands of individual properties to have been formulated in such a way”. 1. General aspects 240. The Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it found that Uganda was responsible for damage to property, both inside and outside Ituri. The Court concluded that UPDF troops “destroyed villages and civilian buildings” and “failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211). 241. In the same Judgment, the Court also determined that Uganda “fail[ed], as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri district” (ibid., p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part). The Court recalls that, in this phase of the proceedings, it is for Uganda to establish that the damage - 70 - to particular property in Ituri alleged by the DRC was not caused by its failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power. In the absence of evidence to that effect, it may be concluded that Uganda owes reparation in relation to such damage (see paragraph 78 above). 242. The Court emphasizes that, given the extraordinary character of the conflict and the ensuing difficulty of gathering detailed evidence for most forms of property damage, the DRC cannot be expected to provide specific documentation for each individual building destroyed or seriously damaged during the five years of Uganda’s unlawful military involvement in the DRC (see paragraph 114 above). At the same time, the Court considers that, notwithstanding the difficult situation in which the DRC found itself, more evidence could be expected to have been collected by the DRC since the Court delivered its 2005 Judgment, particularly in relation to assets and infrastructure owned by the DRC itself and of which it was in possession and control. The Court will bear these considerations in mind when assessing the evidence tendered by the DRC. 2. Ituri 243. In the Court’s view, the DRC offers no convincing evidence for the number of 8,693 private dwellings that it claims have been destroyed in Ituri. Some of the victim identification forms provide a certain impression of the different types of property lost by individuals. These forms do not, however, contain information to substantiate the alleged extent of the damage and the nature and value of the property affected (see paragraphs 146-147 above). Therefore, the victim identification forms submitted  and the aggregate tables allegedly prepared on the basis of such forms  do not contribute to identifying the scale of damage even within a possible range. There are also substantial inconsistencies with respect to the claim for damage to private dwellings in Ituri. For instance, in its Memorial, the DRC states that 80 per cent of the private dwellings destroyed were “basic” (habitations légères). However, the aggregate table presented by the DRC for Ituri indicates that 98 per cent of them were “basic”. 244. The DRC has based its claim that 200 schools were destroyed in Ituri on an unsubstantiated estimate in the Secretary-General’s Second special report on MONUC which is not corroborated by the Mapping Report. Uganda has pointed out that the document in which the DRC lists lost properties only refers to 18 schools and 12 kindergartens. 245. Nor does the DRC substantiate the number of 50 administrative buildings and 50 health facilities that it alleges have been destroyed in Ituri. The DRC merely considers it “reasonable to assume” that 50 clinics and hospitals and 50 administrative buildings were destroyed as a consequence of Uganda’s failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri, without providing any further evidence. The DRC’s claim with respect to looting of property in Ituri is based on general references in international reports and on victim identification forms whose probative value is limited and which often do not identify the specific property that was looted. Finally, the DRC does not substantiate its assessment regarding the average valuations of the buildings and other forms of property destroyed or looted in Ituri. 246. The evidence presented by the DRC does not permit the Court to even approximate the extent of the damage, and the report of the Court-appointed expert does not provide any relevant additional information. The Court must therefore base its own assessment on United Nations reports, - 71 - particularly on the Mapping Report. The Court considers that this report contains several credible findings on the destruction of “dwellings”, “buildings”, “villages”, “hospitals” and “schools” in Ituri. For example, it states with respect to Ituri that, on 31 August 2002, elements of the UPC, which had received logistical support from the UPDF, set “1,000 houses” on fire in Walendu Bindi in the Irumu region (Mapping Report, para. 413). The Mapping Report also states that, on 15 October 2002, UPC militiamen destroyed “more than 500 buildings” in Zumbe in the Walendu Tasi community (ibid., para. 414) and that, on 6 March 2003, elements of the UPDF, the Front national intégrationiste and the FRPI, in the course of a joint military operation, “destroyed numerous buildings, private homes and premises used by local and international NGOs” (ibid., para. 421). Furthermore, the Mapping Report identifies at least ten occasions where entire villages were set on fire by the UPDF or armed groups operating in Ituri (ibid., paras. 366, 370, 414 and 422), and other incidents where hundreds of buildings were burned or destroyed during attacks (ibid., paras. 409 and 413-414). The Court also takes into consideration that the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri contains various descriptions of entire villages and buildings that were burned down or otherwise destroyed by armed groups in Ituri (United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, paras. 47 and 63). 247. The Court further notes that the Mapping Report and other United Nations reports establish a convincing record of large-scale pillaging in Ituri, both by Uganda’s armed forces and by other actors (Mapping Report, paras. 366, 369-370, 405, 407-408, 413-414, 416, 419-421 and 428; MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, paras. 42, 49, 51, 73-74, 100 and 114). 248. With regard to the valuation of the property lost, the Court considers that the DRC has not provided convincing evidence supporting the alleged average value of private dwellings, public buildings and property looted. This is acknowledged in the report of the Court-appointed expert Mr. Senogles. The expert nevertheless recommends that the Court adopt the figures proposed by the DRC with regard to private dwellings, based on their “reasonableness”. With regard to different forms of property damage, the expert applies unexplained “evidentiary discount factor[s]”, i.e. 25 per cent for public buildings and 50 per cent for looting in Ituri. The Court does not consider that the expert has sufficiently substantiated the variable “evidentiary discount factors” he proposes to apply. 249. The Court considers that proceedings before the ICC relating to the same conflict are relevant for the purposes of valuation. In the Katanga case, Trial Chamber II assessed the harm connected to the destruction of each house in the village of Bogoro (Ituri) in February 2003, at US$600 (The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, No. ICC-01/04/01/07, Trial Chamber II, Order for Reparations pursuant to Article 75 of the Statute, 24 March 2017, para. 195). As to the valuation of schools and health care centres, the ICC’s Trust Fund for Victims has provided an estimate, not addressed by the Trial Chamber, that it would cost US$50,000 to rebuild a school or health care centre in Ituri as at February 2020 (The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, No. ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber VI, Reparations Order, 8 March 2021, para. 236 (iv); The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, No. ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber VI, Trust Fund for Victims’ observations relevant to reparations, 28 February 2020, para. 130 (d)). - 72 - 3. Outside Ituri 250. As to damage outside Ituri (see in general paragraphs 82-84 above), the DRC relies primarily on aggregate tables allegedly prepared on the basis of victim identification forms and on the Inter-Agency Report, which provides a list of incidents that resulted in damage to private dwellings, schools and administrative buildings in Kisangani during June 2000. The DRC has not satisfactorily responded to the Court’s request to explain its methodology for the calculation of property damage claimed in Kisangani, Beni and Butembo, locations where the UPDF is known to have operated. The Court also notes that, by extending the claim to all damage to property that would not have occurred “but for” the unlawful use of force by Uganda, the DRC disregards the fact that the Court decided, in its 2005 Judgment, that armed groups operating outside Ituri were not under the control of Uganda (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 226, para. 160, pp. 230-231, para. 177, and p. 253, para. 247). Therefore, even if the Court were able to determine the extent of damage to property outside Ituri, it has not been provided with sufficient evidence regarding the question of which property damage was caused by Uganda. Concerning the operations of the UPDF in Beni and Butembo, the Mapping Report confirms several incidents that resulted in substantial destruction of property without, however, indicating the extent of such destruction (Mapping Report, paras. 330, 347, 348, 349, 361 and 443). 251. The evidence presented by the DRC does not permit the Court to assess the extent of the damage even approximately, and the report of the Court-appointed expert does not provide any relevant additional information. Mr. Senogles simply applies unexplained “discount factors” of 25 per cent to the DRC’s claims with respect to Beni, Butembo and Gemena, and 40 per cent to the claim relating to Kisangani. 252. The Court notes that, with respect to Kisangani, the Mapping Report refers to the destruction of “over 400 private homes and . . . serious damage to public and commercial properties, places of worship . . . educational institutions and healthcare facilities, including hospitals” during indiscriminate attacks with heavy weapons between the Ugandan and Rwandan armed forces from 5 to 10 June 2000 (Mapping Report, para. 363). The Mapping Report thus corroborates the findings of the Inter-Agency Report (United Nations, doc. S/2000/1153 of 4 December 2000, paras. 15-16, 57 and tables 1 and 2), which the Court considered to be a reliable source in its 2005 Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 240, para. 208). 253. The Court considers that the Mapping Report and the Inter-Agency Report contain sufficient evidence to conclude that Uganda caused extensive property damage in Kisangani. In the view of the DRC, Uganda owes reparation for all the damage in Kisangani, because that damage had both cumulative and complementary causes. Uganda, on the other hand, maintains that the two States, Uganda and Rwanda, separately committed internationally wrongful acts and that each is responsible only for the damage caused by its own wrongful actions. The Court considers that each State is responsible for damage in Kisangani that was caused by its own armed forces acting independently. However, based on the very limited evidence available to it, the Court is not in a position to apportion a specific share of the damage to Uganda. It has taken into account the available evidence on damage to property in Kisangani in arriving at the global sum awarded for all damage to property (see paragraph 258 below). - 73 - 4. Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL) 254. The claim of the DRC for damage caused to SNEL forms a large part (US$97,412,090) of the overall claim for damage to property (US$239,971,970). It is possible that, given the character of the conflict and the scale of the hostilities, the company suffered at least some damage (Inter-Agency Report, para. 57). However, the brief and rudimentary report on which the DRC relies was prepared by SNEL in 2016, shortly before the filing of the Memorial on the question of reparation. In this connection, the Court recalls that it “will treat with caution evidentiary materials specially prepared for this case” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 201, para. 61). The report by SNEL does not contain evidence that would substantiate the extent and valuation of damage claimed, or the responsibility of Uganda for any damage, nor is it corroborated by other evidence before the Court. The report of the Court-appointed expert is unhelpful in this respect, as his recommendation is based on the amounts claimed by the DRC and merely applies an unexplained 40 per cent “discount factor”. 255. The Court notes that SNEL is a public entity which, as a national service provider, is subject to specific supervision by the Government of the DRC. Given the Government’s close relationship with SNEL, in particular the fact that it likely has relevant documents in its possession, the DRC could have been expected to provide some evidence substantiating its claim to the Court. Under these circumstances, the Court considers that the DRC has not discharged its burden of proof regarding its claim for damage to SNEL. 5. Military property 256. Similar considerations apply to the DRC’s claim for damage to certain property of its armed forces (US$69,417,192). The DRC substantiates this claim only by way of a brief and rudimentary report that was prepared by DRC officials shortly before the filing of its Memorial on the question of reparation. This report does not provide a sufficient basis for the Court to determine the existence of the damage claimed, the responsibility of Uganda for such damage or its valuation. Given the direct authority of the Government over its armed forces, the DRC could have been expected to substantiate its claims more fully, which it has not done. The Court dismisses this claim of the DRC for lack of evidence, and therefore does not address any other question in relation to this claim. 6. Conclusion 257. The Court finds that the evidence presented by the DRC regarding damage to property is particularly limited. The Court is nevertheless persuaded that a significant amount of damage to property was caused by Uganda’s unlawful conduct, as the Court found in its 2005 Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211). The Mapping Report, in particular, provides reliable and corroborated information about many instances of damage to property caused by Uganda, and also by other actors in Ituri (see paragraphs 246, 247, 252 and 253 above). The Court also concludes that Uganda has not established that the particular damage to property alleged by the DRC in Ituri was not caused by Uganda’s failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power. * - 74 - 258. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court notes that the available evidence in relation to damage to property caused by Uganda is limited, but the Mapping Report at least substantiates many instances of damage to property caused by Uganda. Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 230-253 above), the proposals regarding the assignment of value to damage to property (see paragraphs 234-235 and 239 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69-126 above), the Court will award compensation for damage to property as a global sum of US$40,000,000 (see paragraph 106 above). C. Damage related to natural resources 259. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that “the Republic of Uganda, by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural resources committed by members of the Ugandan armed forces in the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and by its failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri district to prevent acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural resources, violated obligations owed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo under international law” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 280-281, para. 345, subpara. (4) of the operative part). The Court recalls that both the DRC and Uganda are parties to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights of 27 June 1981, Article 21, paragraph 2, of which states that “[i]n case of spoliation the dispossessed people shall have the right to the lawful recovery of its property as well as to an adequate compensation”. * * 260. In its final submissions presented at the oral proceedings, the DRC asked the Court to adjudge and declare that Uganda is required to pay US$1,043,563,809 as compensation for damage to Congolese natural resources caused by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation. This sum comprises claims for the loss of minerals, including gold, diamonds, coltan, tin and tungsten, for the loss of coffee and timber, for damage to flora through deforestation, and damage to fauna. 261. The DRC relies on the 2005 Judgment, in which the Court found that there was persuasive and credible evidence to establish that Uganda had violated its international obligations by exploiting natural resources, notably as an occupying Power. In this regard, the DRC invokes the principle of res judicata. It argues that, in order to demonstrate the “exact injury”, it is not necessary to prove that the injury in question is linked to a specific internationally wrongful act with absolute certainty. - 75 - It further argues that a lower evidentiary standard applies to natural resources, as laid down by the Court in the case concerning Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) (Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26-27, paras. 33-35). The DRC considers this standard to be adequate in light of the special circumstances which “stem from five years of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources across a territory and by persons not under the DRC’s control”. 262. To substantiate the extent and amount of its claim, the DRC uses different methodologies depending on the type of natural resource in question. It applies a surplus methodology for its claims regarding gold, diamonds and coltan (see paragraph 283 below). According to this approach, the difference between the production of minerals in Uganda and the export of those minerals from Uganda between 1998 and 2003 is used as a proxy for assessing the injury allegedly suffered by the DRC as a result of the illegal exploitation. With respect to timber, the DRC calculates the damage based on the commercial value of exports and taxes of a specific timber company, DARA-Forest, from 1998 to 2003. The DRC’s claims relating to damage to fauna are mainly based on an assessment prepared by the Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation (hereinafter the “ICCN”), the public body in the DRC responsible for managing national parks. The DRC further refers to the reports of the United Nations Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter “UNPE”), the Porter Commission Report, the Mapping Report and reports by non-governmental organizations to establish the causal nexus between the damage and internationally wrongful acts attributable to Uganda and to prove the alleged extent of the damage. 263. Regarding its claims for exploitation of coffee, tin and tungsten, the DRC adopts the figures set out in the report by the Court-appointed expert Mr. Nest. With respect to the methodology adopted by the expert to determine the extent of exploitation, notably of gold, diamonds and coltan, however, the DRC expresses doubts about the “proxy tax rate” approach adopted by the expert to calculate the damage in question. As for the valuation of the exploited resources, the DRC considers it inappropriate for the expert to apply a discount of 35 per cent (see paragraph 271 below) systematically without any regard for the specific value of each resource. The DRC also contends that the expert relied on the market conditions in the DRC as a “spoliation economy” caused by Uganda’s breach of international obligations, and concludes that the Court should not adopt these very low base prices. In addition, the DRC maintains that the expert excluded the exploitation of natural resources by civilians in Ituri and thus inappropriately limited the scope of his analysis. Finally, the DRC argues that the expert should have included damage to fauna and flora through deforestation in the scope of his analysis. * 264. Uganda submits that the Court should reject the DRC’s claims for compensation for the looting, plundering and exploitation of its natural resources. Uganda argues that certain kinds of natural resources for which the DRC claims compensation, notably timber and fauna, fall outside the scope of the 2005 Judgment. Uganda further maintains that the DRC’s claims regarding tin, tungsten and coffee are ultra petita, since the DRC only raised them during the first round of the oral proceedings. - 76 - 265. Uganda further argues that the evidence that the DRC presents is insufficient, and that the DRC has not discharged its burden of proof. In response to the DRC’s reliance on the standard set out in the Certain Activities case (see paragraph 261 above), Uganda maintains that in that case the Court was not “approximating from zero [since] Costa Rica presented evidence linking specific injury to specific wrongful acts occurring in a specific area and at a specific point in time”. Uganda claims that the DRC must provide “evidence regarding the locations, ownership, average production, and concessions or licenses for each mine and forest for which the DRC claims compensation for illegal exploitation by Uganda”. 266. According to Uganda, the methodologies applied by the DRC suffer from considerable flaws. With regard to the DRC’s contention that the difference between the purported production of minerals in Uganda and export of those minerals from Uganda between 1998 and 2003 can be used as a proxy for assessing the injury allegedly suffered by the DRC as a result of the illegal exploitation of those minerals, Uganda argues that this effectively contradicts the Court’s finding in 2005 that there was no “governmental policy of Uganda directed at the exploitation of natural resources of the DRC [n]or that Uganda’s military intervention was carried out in order to obtain access to Congolese resources” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 251, para. 242). Regarding the exploitation of timber, Uganda observes that the DRC’s claim is founded entirely on a “case study” concerning DARA-Forest, which the Porter Commission refuted as wholly unfounded and which the UNPE itself retracted. Uganda thus argues that the evidence adduced by the DRC fails to prove the exact extent of damage to the different kinds of natural resources and does not demonstrate that such damage can be attributed to Uganda. 267. In response to the findings of the Court-appointed expert Mr. Nest, Uganda argues that under the terms of reference the expert was not instructed to assess the exploitation of tin, tungsten and coffee and that his findings in this regard were therefore beyond the scope of his mandate. With respect to the methodology applied to assess the quantity of resources exploited, Uganda contends that the expert relies on an “exports  domestic production” model that is methodologically flawed. Furthermore, Uganda maintains that the expert’s methodology contradicts what it describes as the express findings in the 2005 Judgment that Uganda had no governmental policy directed at the exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources and that Uganda’s military intervention in the DRC was not carried out in order to obtain access to these resources. Regarding valuation, Uganda argues that the expert’s determination of the base prices by reference to the market price was inapposite and that their adjustment was based on arbitrary factors. * - 77 - 268. The Court-appointed expert Mr. Nest estimates that the total value of exploitation activities by personnel in what he refers to as the “Ugandan area of influence” amounts to US$58,855,466.40 (US$41,332,950.80 for resources extracted in Ituri; US$17,522,515.60 for resources extracted outside Ituri). The expert uses the term “Ugandan area of influence” to describe non-government-held areas in the northern part of the DRC where UPDF personnel were present, covering approximately one third of the territory of the DRC, both inside and outside of Ituri. 269. In the terms of reference, the Court asked the expert to evaluate the “approximate quantity” and value of unlawfully exploited “natural resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber” within Ituri during the occupation by Ugandan armed forces of that district and of “natural resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber” plundered and exploited by Ugandan armed forces in the DRC, except for Ituri, “[b]ased on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the 2005 Judgment” (see paragraph 25 above). 270. Concerning the scope of his report, the expert understands the formulation “natural resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber” to be a non-exhaustive list. On this basis, he also examined the exploitation of tin, tungsten and coffee. Regarding the methodology adopted, the expert report notes that complete evidence for the purposes of a precise valuation was missing “in virtually all cases”. Therefore, “other sources of information had to be relied on to inform estimates about resource distribution and quantities, including maps of deposits, anecdotal descriptions of resource distribution from field observations in the DRC, or production data had to be combined from several sources”. Furthermore, the expert report points to the effect of “tumultuous conditions” on the availability, reliability, and commensurability of data, to the interruptive impact of the conflict on industrial production during the period from 1998 to 2003, and to significant but often unrecorded artisanal production and smuggling of all seven resources addressed in the expert report. 271. The expert proceeded in “eight basic steps”. He first assessed the quantity of resources produced in what he called the Ugandan area of influence, based on national production data combined with information about the location of resources (for gold and diamonds). Alternatively, “[w]here national data for resources were not available or appeared too unreliable”, the expert used “export and/or import data for countries trading in the DRC resources” as a proxy for DRC production (as for coltan, coffee, timber, tin and tungsten). He then estimated the distribution of the pertinent resources within the Ugandan area of influence, notably between Ituri and non-Ituri. The expert next calculated the average price for each resource and for each year of the conflict by taking the base annual average prices for 1998-2003 and applying a discount of 35 per cent to reflect the approximate prices in the relevant areas based on information obtained from a wide range of sources, including databases, reports by the United Nations and other international organizations, and academic publications. He then adjusted the resulting price into 2020 United States dollars by “inflating” them by reference to a standard rate. The expert then obtained the base value of each resource by multiplying the estimated amount of each resource produced in the Ugandan area of influence, Ituri and outside Ituri, by its price during the relevant period. Finally, on the basis of - 78 - a variety of sources, the expert indicated, for each resource, “proxy taxes”, i.e. estimated rates reflecting the value extracted by personnel through each method of exploitation (theft, payments of fees and licences, and taxation) as a percentage of the estimated total value of production for each resource in the relevant period. The expert set such specific “proxy taxes” for Ituri, where he took into account the value extracted by “any and all armed forces and any affiliated administrative personnel, including both UPDF and Congolese”, and for the remainder of the Ugandan area of influence, where he only took into account exploitation undertaken by UPDF personnel. He then calculated the value exploited by the above-referenced personnel from each resource in Ituri and outside Ituri by multiplying the base value of each natural resource by the “proxy taxes” previously estimated. 272. In its observations on the expert’s report, the DRC pointed out that Mr. Nest had not taken account of the unlawful exploitation of natural resources in Ituri by civilians which, it alleges, was brought about by Uganda’s violation of its international obligations as the occupying Power. In response, Mr. Nest explained that, for Ituri, he had estimated the value extracted by military and administrative personnel only, excluding the value retained by civilians. This exclusion was based on his assumption that “civilians were voluntarily involved in the production, trade and export of the seven resources from 1998 to 2003, and that profits retained by them, after theft and taxes, remained in their control”. The expert then supplemented his original report by estimating the additional value extracted by civilians from those resources in Ituri. He also indicated that the question whether the civilian-retained portion of this value should be regarded as part of the damage suffered by the DRC is a matter for the Court to determine. 1. General aspects 273. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court stated that “[i]n reaching its decision on the DRC’s claim [regarding natural resources], it was not necessary for the Court to make findings of fact with regard to each individual incident alleged” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 249, para. 237). The Court then found that “it d[id] not have at its disposal credible evidence to prove that there [had been] a governmental policy of Uganda directed at the exploitation of natural resources of the DRC or that Uganda’s military intervention [had been] carried out in order to obtain access to Congolese resources” (ibid., p. 251, para. 242). However, it “consider[ed] that it ha[d] ample credible and persuasive evidence to conclude that officers and soldiers of the UPDF, including the most high-ranking officers, [had been] involved in the looting, plundering and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources and that the military authorities [had] not take[n] any measures to put an end to these acts” (ibid.). 274. With respect to the natural resources located outside Ituri, the Court established that Uganda bears responsibility for looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources “whenever” members of the UPDF were involved (ibid., p. 252, para. 245), but not for any such acts committed by members of “rebel groups” that were not under Uganda’s control (ibid., p. 253, para. 247). The 2005 Judgment did not specify which acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources the Court considered to be attributable to Uganda. That decision was left to the reparations phase, in which the DRC would have to provide evidence regarding the extent of damage to natural resources outside Ituri, as well as its attribution to Uganda. - 79 - 275. With respect to natural resources located in Ituri, the Court found “sufficient credible evidence” to establish that Uganda had violated “its obligations under Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of 1907 as an occupying Power in Ituri in respect of all acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 253, para. 250). This means Uganda is liable to make reparation for all acts of looting, plundering or exploitation of natural resources in Ituri, even if the persons who engaged in such acts were members of armed groups or other third parties (ibid., p. 253, para. 248). It remains for the Court in the reparations phase to satisfy itself that the available evidence establishes the existence of the alleged injury from looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources and, in the exceptional circumstances of this case, to identify at least a range of possibilities regarding its extent. 276. The Court recalls that it is limited to deciding on the amount of compensation due for the injuries resulting from the internationally wrongful acts that the Court identified in its 2005 Judgment (ibid., p. 257, para. 260), in which it specifically addressed reports regarding the exploitation of gold (ibid., pp. 249-250, para. 238, and pp. 250-251, paras. 240-242), diamonds (ibid., p. 250, para. 240, p. 251, para. 242, and p. 253, para. 248), and coffee (ibid., p. 250, para. 240). The Court did not mention coltan, tin, tungsten, timber or damage to fauna and flora. Coltan, tin, tungsten and timber are nonetheless raw materials which are encompassed by the generic term “natural resources”. Furthermore, the Court is of the view that claims relating to fauna are covered by the scope of the 2005 Judgment, in which the “hunting and plundering of protected species” was referred to as part of the DRC’s allegations regarding natural resources (ibid., p. 246, para. 223). To the extent that damage to flora represents a direct consequence of the plundering of timber through deforestation, the Court considers that such damage falls within the scope of the 2005 Judgment. The Court must nevertheless satisfy itself in the present reparations phase that the alleged exploitation of resources which were not mentioned explicitly in the 2005 Judgment actually occurred and that Uganda is liable to make reparation for the ensuing damage. 277. The Court is of the view that the methodological approach taken by the expert report is convincing overall. The Court notes that the methodology adopted by the expert appropriately differs slightly depending on the resource in question and on the respective degree of reliability of the data on which he bases his estimates. The expert report is also transparent about its own limitations, acknowledging that “[t]he incompleteness of data meant other sources of information had to be relied on to inform estimates about resource distribution and quantities, including maps of deposits, anecdotal descriptions of resource distribution from field observations in the DRC, or production data had to be combined from several sources”. Despite these limitations, Mr. Nest’s methodology informs the Court’s conclusions on the extent of damage for which Uganda owes reparation. Given the nature of the unlawful exploitation of natural resources, including the conflict situation and the lack of documentation in the relevant sector of the economy that is predominantly informal, the Court is of the view that the “proxy tax” (see paragraph 271 above) methodology used by Mr. Nest is appropriate, in the circumstances of the present case, to estimate the loss with a suitable degree of approximation. The Court is not convinced by the standard suggested by Uganda, according to which the DRC has to prove the specific time, place, and damage relating to each incident of exploitation (see paragraph 114 above). Given the - 80 - pattern of widespread exploitation and the evidentiary challenges in this case, the approach suggested by Uganda does not appear appropriate. Instead, the Court considers that the approach taken in the expert’s report, which is based on estimates derived from reliable economic data, scientific publications and the case file, produces a more persuasive assessment and valuation of the damage. The expert has also taken into account other explanations for the respective surpluses of Congolese production and Ugandan exports. As to valuation, the expert report applies a plausible discount to the international market price. 278. As previously noted (see paragraph 272 above), the expert did not include the value extracted by civilians from natural resources in Ituri in the amount of compensation estimated in his original report, based on his assumption that, during the period of occupation, civilians were voluntarily involved in the production, trade and export of those resources and that profits retained by them remained in their control (see paragraph 272 above). In the circumstances assumed by the expert, it can be concluded that an operator’s continued retention of its own profits does not amount to an act of “looting, plundering and exploitation” in respect of which the Court found that Uganda had failed to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power under Article 43 of the Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land annexed to the Fourth Hague Convention of 18 October 1907 (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 253, para. 250) and thus, would not call for any reparation by Uganda. However, the 2005 Judgment also refers to instances in which UPDF members facilitated illegal trafficking in natural resources by commercial entities (ibid., para. 248). The evidence available to the Court does not permit an appreciation of the extent to which the scenario assumed by Mr. Nest prevailed in Ituri, as compared to situations in which other private persons deprived the operator of profits through acts of looting, plundering or exploitation of natural resources. In considering the compensation owed with respect to all acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources, the Court therefore places emphasis on the calculations made by Mr. Nest using the “proxy tax” methodology. 279. The Court notes that the terms of reference provided to the expert by the Court did not include damage to fauna and damage to flora through deforestation and that the expert therefore made no findings with respect to those forms of damage to natural resources (beyond commercial trade in timber). 280. The Court observes that the DRC refers, in support of its claim for damage related to natural resources, to the UNPE reports, the Porter Commission Report, the Mapping Report, reports by non-governmental organizations and reports prepared by domestic institutions. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court expressed its general view that the Porter Commission Report and the United Nations reports furnished sufficient and convincing evidence to determine whether Uganda engaged in acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources (ibid., p. 201, para. 61, and p. 249, para. 237). The Court attributes probative value to the findings of these reports, particularly if they are corroborated by the Mapping Report and the expert report by Mr. Nest. 281. Taking these general considerations into account, the Court will draw its conclusions on the basis of the evidence that it finds reliable in order to determine the damage caused by Uganda to Congolese natural resources and the compensation to be awarded. - 81 - 2. Minerals (a) Gold 282. In its Memorial the DRC claimed US$675,541,972 for the loss of gold. At the end of the oral proceedings the DRC stated that its claim for gold was “at least US$249,881,000”. 283. To calculate the extent of damage, the DRC uses a surplus exports methodology to ascertain the amount of gold that was exploited. This methodology is based on the assumption that domestic production by Uganda was virtually non-existent between 1998 and 2003, that Uganda nonetheless exported large amounts of gold during the relevant period, and that the surplus of exports corresponds to the amount of gold Uganda exploited in the DRC. 284. The DRC bases its calculations on data for the years 1998 to 2000 from the Ugandan Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, taken from the first UNPE report (United Nations, doc. S/2001/357 of 12 April 2001, pp. 19-20), and from the annual reports of Uganda’s Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development for the period from 2001 to 2003. The DRC claims that the surplus of gold exports from Uganda amounts to 45,143 tonnes for the period between 1998 and 2003. Responding to the contention by Uganda that only statistics from the Ugandan Bureau of Statistics (hereinafter the “UBOS”) were accurate, the DRC stated that the export surplus would still amount to 28,923 tonnes even if it were calculated using the UBOS figures. 285. The DRC refers to various reports to illustrate the extent of Uganda’s role in the exploitation of gold, in terms of geography, the quantity of resources involved, and the range of practices employed. To substantiate its claim, the DRC refers to the presence of Uganda as an occupying Power in the Adidi and Mabanga gold mines in the Ituri district. It also refers to the presence of Uganda in the Watsa (Haut-Uélé district) and Bondo gold mines (Bas-Uélé district). Depending on the location, the DRC argues that UPDF soldiers requisitioned or exploited gold, or levied “taxes” on the exploitation of gold. The DRC recognizes that the various incidents it refers to are not, in themselves, sufficient to quantify its injury, but argues that they do establish the extent of Uganda’s role in the looting, plundering and illegal exploitation of gold. 286. With respect to valuation, the DRC stated during the oral proceedings that it agrees with the approach taken by Mr. Nest which consisted in using the World Gold Council’s data, and that the resulting price should therefore be discounted to reflect the part of the value chain that remains, if any, in the DRC. The DRC suggests applying a discount percentage of 95 per cent. * 287. Uganda maintains that the Court, in its 2005 Judgment, made no finding that Uganda was responsible for gold smuggling or that Uganda derived any benefit from illegally exploited gold. It is of the view that the DRC has offered no legal basis for an award of monetary compensation for the exploitation of gold. - 82 - 288. Uganda submits that the DRC’s methodology to assess the extent of the injury the DRC allegedly suffered contradicts the Court’s finding in its 2005 Judgment that there was no “governmental policy of Uganda directed at the exploitation of natural resources of the DRC [n]or that Uganda’s military intervention was carried out in order to obtain access to Congolese resources” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 251, para. 242). Uganda also argues that the surplus methodology adopted by the DRC is flawed because the DRC does not demonstrate any link between the export of natural resources from Uganda and their illegal exploitation. Uganda emphasizes that the Porter Commission did not make any finding concerning the illegal character of gold exports by Uganda. Uganda further argues that the DRC’s approach disregards statistical and regulatory factors that explain the apparent gap between Uganda’s purported production and export of gold. According to Uganda, the “economic data” on which the DRC relied came from the first UNPE report, which was widely criticized. Furthermore, these data merely indicate the amount of gold for which permit-seekers sought authorization for export from Uganda, and not what they actually exported. 289. Uganda further maintains that virtually none of the examples of injury alleged by the DRC contains proof of specific acts of exploitation of gold attributable to Uganda. While Uganda recognizes that the DRC provides evidence, primarily from the Porter Commission Report, “of specific acts attributable to Uganda resulting in unlawful exploitation of mineral resources”, it argues that the DRC fails to prove the existence and the extent of injury with respect to these acts. Regarding its responsibility as an occupying Power in Ituri, Uganda claims that the DRC did not offer any evidence to prove that the injury would have been averted if Uganda had acted in compliance with its legal obligations. Uganda also argues that, even if it had taken all measures in its power and discharged its obligations as an occupying Power, it could not possibly have prevented all exploitative acts by private persons in Ituri. 290. Uganda also contests the method of valuation adopted by the DRC during the oral proceedings according to which the valuation price of gold should correspond to 95 per cent of the world price. Uganda points out that this discount is based on field studies that had nothing to do with Uganda or the UPDF, since they concern transactions of Congolese local dealers from 2007 to 2011. 291. Uganda argues that the Court should not rely on the expert report by Mr. Nest. According to Uganda, Mr. Nest conceded when questions were put to him at the hearing that the methodology he had adopted did not prove that the surplus of Ugandan exports had originated in unlawful exploitation of gold in the DRC that was attributable to Uganda. It further claims that Mr. Nest relied on uncorroborated estimates and applied “proxy taxes” based on inflationary figures and inadequate data. * - 83 - 292. The Court-appointed expert Mr. Nest combines two methods to assess the amount of illegally exploited gold. First, he compares the data relating to the DRC’s total national production data with DRC exports (“DRC production surplus”). To the extent that this gold production exceeded formal exports in what he refers to as the Ugandan area of influence, he assumed that this surplus reflected the total quantity of gold smuggled from that area. Secondly, the expert compares the data from the UBOS regarding gold exports with Ugandan production data as a basis for estimating the quantities of gold illegally exploited in the Ugandan area of influence (“Ugandan export surplus”). The expert then takes the higher figure between the DRC production surplus and the Ugandan export surplus as the estimated quantity of gold exploited in the Ugandan area of influence for each year. Based on eight documents that contain eye-witness reports and statements by gold producers, he estimates that around 45 per cent of the gold production in the Ugandan area of influence came from Ituri, and around 55 per cent from outside Ituri. The expert then estimates the value exploited by relevant personnel from gold by reference to “proxy taxes” (see paragraph 271 above). According to Mr. Nest, “[w]ithin Ituri all armed forces are likely to have stolen limited quantities of gold from producers and traders” and, “[o]utside Ituri, it is probable [that] some UPDF personnel engaged in limited theft of gold”. With respect to fees and licences, the applicable “proxy taxes” were calculated by reference to United Nations reports and other reports. As to “taxes” levied on gold, he indicates that, for various reasons, outside Ituri “the funds extracted through a tax on value imposed by UPDF personnel is estimated to be low”. Mr. Nest estimates the value of gold exploited by relevant personnel in the Ugandan area of influence at US$45,892,790.2 (US$35,359,097.3 for gold exploitation in Ituri and US$10,533,692.9 for gold exploitation outside Ituri). * * 293. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court referred to the Porter Commission’s findings on the exploitation of gold when establishing Uganda’s responsibility for the looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 249-251, paras. 238 and 240-242). Yet the Court did not attribute specific acts of exploitation of gold outside Ituri to Uganda. 294. The Court is not convinced by the methodology and the figures on which the DRC bases its assessment of the amount and value of gold looted, plundered and exploited for which Uganda owes reparation. In particular, the DRC’s methodology does not exclude the value of gold production and trade that commercial entities continued to receive during the period of Ugandan occupation and control, nor does it take into account informal gold production in Uganda. 295. However, the Court considers that there is sufficient evidence of the involvement of Ugandan forces in gold exploitation throughout the DRC (see e.g. Porter Commission Report, pp. 19-20, 64-72, 81-82, 177, 197; see also 2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 249-250, para. 238, and pp. 250-251, paras. 240-241). Referring to widespread individual incidents of exploitation over a period of five years, the evidence establishes a pattern of plundering, looting and exploitation of gold in the DRC which involved Ugandan forces. The Court considers - 84 - Mr. Nest’s methodology and assessment to be a helpful basis for its appreciation of the damage attributable to Uganda’s unlawful conduct (see paragraph 292 above). 296. Specifically with respect to Ituri, the evidence before the Court establishes a pattern of exploitation of gold (see e.g. Porter Commission Report, p. 69; Mapping Report, paras. 753-757, 761; First UNPE report, United Nations, doc. S/2001/357 of 12 April 2001, para. 59; see also 2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 250, para. 240, and p. 253, para. 248) also reflected by the expert in his report. According to the findings made in paragraphs 249 and 250 of the 2005 Judgment, Uganda failed to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power and is responsible for “all acts” of exploitation in Ituri. As the Court has noted, this implies that Uganda is liable to make reparation for all acts of looting, plundering or exploitation of natural resources in Ituri, even if the persons who engaged in such acts were members of armed groups or other third parties (see paragraphs 79, 275 and 278 above). 297. The Court further considers that the evidence before it shows a pattern of exploitation of gold outside Ituri (First UNPE report, United Nations, doc. S/2001/357 of 12 April 2001, paras. 56 and 57 as confirmed by the Porter Commission Report, pp. 21-23, 64-72). In calculating “proxy taxes” (see paragraph 271 above) outside Ituri, Mr. Nest uses information regarding the locations of gold and of Ugandan forces to estimate exploitation by Ugandan troops as opposed to other forces, so that the Court does not need to reduce this figure to take account of the fact that the conduct of other forces outside Ituri is not attributable to Uganda. 298. The Court is of the view that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that Uganda is responsible for a substantial amount of damage resulting from looting, plundering and exploitation of gold within the range of the assessment of the expert report. On this basis, the Court will award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for all damage to natural resources (see paragraph 366 below). (b) Diamonds 299. The DRC claims US$7,055,885 for the looting, plundering and illegal exploitation of diamonds. 300. The DRC argues that the extent of Uganda’s role in the illegal exploitation and exportation of the DRC’s diamond resources is clear from various perspectives: first, from Uganda’s occupation of the DRC’s diamond mining areas; secondly, from the involvement of certain members of the Ugandan army in the provision of security services to companies exploiting diamonds and the collection of “taxes” by rebel groups allied to Uganda; thirdly, from the involvement of the most senior Ugandan military officials in the exploitation of the DRC’s diamond reserves; and fourthly, from the role that Ugandan military transport played in the exporting of diamonds. 301. The DRC submits that the exponential increase that was seen in Ugandan diamond exports from 1998, despite Uganda not producing diamonds, provides further confirmation of Uganda’s role in the illegal exploitation and exportation of the DRC’s diamond resources, - 85 - and enables it to assess the extent of the injury suffered. On the basis of export statistics stemming from a 2002 report by the British All-Party Parliamentary Group on the Great Lakes and Genocide Prevention, based largely on data from the Diamond High Council (now the Antwerp World Diamond Centre), the DRC estimates that the injury it suffered in the period from 1998 to 2001 amounted to US$7,055,885, i.e. the total value of Ugandan diamond exports during the period in question. The DRC adds that that amount needs to be supplemented by Ugandan diamond exports in 2002 and 2003. Although the DRC made enquiries to the Diamond High Council to that effect, it has not provided a figure to the Court. * 302. Uganda maintains that the DRC’s claim that Uganda illegally exploited Congolese diamonds in the amount of US$7,055,885 lacks foundation. Accordingly, in Uganda’s view, the DRC has offered no legal basis upon which compensation can be awarded for this claim. 303. Uganda observes that the methodology used by the DRC to assess the extent of damage based on Uganda’s purported export of minerals effectively contradicts the Court’s finding in 2005 that there was no “governmental policy of Uganda directed at the exploitation of natural resources of the DRC [n]or that Uganda’s military intervention was carried out in order to obtain access to Congolese resources” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 251, para. 242). Uganda further highlights that the DRC bases its claim entirely on the widely criticised first report of the UNPE. 304. Uganda contests the DRC’s valuation of its injury, noting that the export statistics provided by the DRC emanate from a single source, the Diamond High Council, and are uncorroborated. Uganda emphasizes that neither the British all-party parliamentary group nor the UNPE independently verified the data from the Diamond High Council before relying on them. Uganda refers to the Porter Commission, which concluded that the first UNPE report based on these statistics was unreliable since the data did not reflect the legal export of diamonds from Uganda but rather the declared origin of imports after arriving in Belgium. Uganda has submitted its own statistical data from the UBOS which indicate that Uganda exported only miniscule quantities of diamonds between 1998 and 2003 (worth approximately US$4,393 in total). * - 86 - 305. In his report, the Court-appointed expert Mr. Nest applies to diamonds a methodology comparable to the one he uses for gold. He states, however, that the dataset on which he relies makes the resulting estimates less complete than those for gold. To compensate for this, Mr. Nest extrapolates in certain respects from the data on gold. On the basis of his findings, Mr. Nest estimates that the value extracted by relevant personnel through the exploitation of diamonds is US$6,039,299, of which US$1,013,897 is in Ituri and US$5,025,402 outside Ituri. * * 306. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court referred to the Porter Commission’s findings on the exploitation of diamonds when establishing Uganda’s liability for the looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 250-251, paras. 240 and 242, p. 253, para. 248). Notably, the Court found with respect to Ituri that “[i]t is apparent from various findings of the Porter Commission that rather than preventing the illegal traffic in natural resources, including diamonds, high-ranking members of the UPDF facilitated such activities by commercial entities” (ibid., p. 253, para. 248). However, the Court did not identify specific acts regarding the exploitation of diamonds for which Uganda is responsible, nor did it specify the quantity or value of the exploited diamonds. 307. The Court considers that the figures put forward by the DRC with respect to the quantity and value of exploited diamonds for which Uganda owes reparation are not based on a convincing methodological approach, in particular because the DRC relies on insufficient and uncorroborated data. 308. However, the Court is of the view that there is sufficient evidence of involvement by Ugandan forces in a pattern of plundering, looting and exploitation of diamonds throughout the DRC. The Court notes that the Porter Commission Report contains descriptions of multiple incidents involving the exploitation of diamonds attributable to Uganda (Porter Commission Report, pp. 51, 82, 88-89, 117, 121-123, 162). Furthermore, United Nations reports published after the Porter Commission Report substantiated the existence of such patterns of diamond exploitation in Ituri (see e.g. the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, United Nations, doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 133; Mapping Report, para. 768) and outside Ituri (see e.g. Mapping Report, para. 748). 309. In these circumstances, the Court considers Mr. Nest’s methodology, which, in essence, corresponds to the one he adopted for gold, and his assessment to be a persuasive reference for the Court’s determination of the extent and valuation of damage for which Uganda owes reparation. 310. The Court considers that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that Uganda is responsible for damage resulting from the looting, plundering and exploitation of diamonds within the range of the assessment of the expert report. On this basis, the Court will award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for all damage to natural resources (see paragraph 366 below). - 87 - (c) Coltan 311. The DRC claims US$2,915,880 for damage resulting from the plundering, looting, and illegal exploitation of coltan and niobium, one of the minerals extracted from coltan. 312. The DRC refers to various reports indicating that Uganda controlled coltan mines in Bafwasende and Mambasa in order to substantiate its claim that coltan was one of the natural resources unlawfully exploited either in Ituri or by Ugandan forces outside Ituri. The DRC also relies on the final UNPE report, according to which UPDF soldiers operated coltan mines, charged diggers a daily fee to exploit an area, and had connections with a company called La Conmet that transported coltan from Orientale Province in the DRC to Uganda and then to Kazakhstan. 313. In order to substantiate the extent of coltan exploitation by Uganda, the DRC relies on a 2002 report by the British All-Party Parliamentary Group on the Great Lakes and Genocide Prevention, which is based, inter alia, on statistics provided by the Ugandan Government. The report contains Ugandan export statistics of coltan and niobium in the relevant period. The DRC submits that Uganda, while not producing coltan itself, exported a total of 90,640 kg of coltan between 1998 and 2000. 314. Relying on information from La Conmet, the DRC submits that the market price of coltan during the relevant period was US$17 per kilogram. The 90,640 kg allegedly exploited by Uganda thus had a value of US$1,540,880. The DRC asserts that the evidence also shows that Ugandan exports of niobium had a total value of US$1,375,000 during the relevant period. Combining the figures for coltan and niobium, the DRC argues that the damage it suffered amounts to at least US$2,915,880. * 315. Uganda maintains that the DRC has offered no legal basis for an award of monetary compensation for the exploitation of coltan/niobium. 316. Uganda contends that the “economic data” on the basis of which the DRC attempts to demonstrate the extent of unlawful coltan/niobium exploitation by Uganda do not support the DRC’s claim. According to Uganda, the data taken from the 2002 report by the British All-Party Parliamentary Group on the Great Lakes and Genocide Prevention reproduce the data originally presented in the first UNPE report, which in turn is based on export statistics apparently received from Uganda’s Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development. Uganda claims that these statistics do not even refer to coltan, but only to niobium and tantalum. Uganda further maintains that these statistics show that the value of niobium exports during the period of the conflict was nearly five times less than that claimed by the DRC and, even with the addition of the export value of tantalum, still nearly three times lower than the DRC’s assessment. - 88 - 317. Uganda further considers that, to the extent that coltan from the DRC may have transited through Uganda, it did so in the normal course of trade. It argues that the DRC had to present convincing evidence that specific amounts of coltan transited through Uganda as a result of specific internationally wrongful acts attributable to Uganda, which it has failed to do. Uganda maintains that the Porter Commission refuted the claim that Uganda’s exports of niobium were connected to the illegal exploitation of Congolese resources. * 318. Mr. Nest notes that the “overwhelming majority” of informal coltan production in the DRC was in what he called the “Rwandan area of influence”. However, he finds that, outside Ituri, “it is reasonable to assume some UPDF personnel stole minor quantities of [coltan]”. Mr. Nest estimates that the value of coltan unlawfully exploited by Uganda amounts to US$375,487, of which US$63,038 in Ituri and US$312,449 outside Ituri. * * 319. The evidence furnished by the DRC does not provide a convincing basis for its claim of US$2,915,880 for coltan. The Porter Commission found that the allegations contained in the La Conmet “case study” and in the UNPE reports, on which the DRC relies, were not supported by credible evidence. The Court further notes that various incidents involving Rwandan exploitation of coltan can be identified from the available evidence, thus giving credence to Mr. Nest’s observation that most of the informal coltan production was in what Mr. Nest calls the “Rwandan area of influence”. 320. At the same time, there are certain indications of coltan exploitation by UPDF personnel in Ituri, as well as outside Ituri. In its final report, the UNPE observed that various armed groups exploited coltan in Ituri under the protection of the UPDF (Final UNPE report, United Nations doc. S/2002/1146 of 16 October 2002, p. 21, para. 108). The United Nations experts also described several clashes between the UPDF and other forces, and even within the UPDF itself, for control of coltan-rich areas outside Ituri (ibid., p. 20, para. 101). The cross-border transportation of coltan in vehicles belonging to the Chief of Staff of the UPDF is also documented. For example, the Mapping Report details measures taken by the UPDF in retaliation for an attack on one of their coltan convoys on the road to Butembo (Mapping Report, para. 743). A 2001 HRW report describes how Mai-Mai fighters ambushed UPDF soldiers in order to intercept a truck transporting a supply of coltan with a value of around US$70,000 (HRW, “Uganda in Eastern DRC. Fueling Political and Ethnic Strife”, p. 5). - 89 - 321. In light of these circumstances, the Court considers Mr. Nest’s methodology and assessment to be a persuasive basis for the Court’s determination of the extent and valuation of damage attributable to Uganda’s internationally wrongful conduct. 322. The Court considers that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that Uganda is responsible for damage resulting from the looting, plundering and exploitation of coltan within the range of the assessment of the expert report. On this basis, the Court will award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for all damage to natural resources (see paragraph 366 below). (d) Tin and tungsten 323. The DRC claims US$257,667 for the exploitation of tin and US$82,147 for the exploitation of tungsten. These claims were not contained in the DRC’s written submissions but were introduced after the submission of the expert report, which included both minerals in its study. Accordingly, the amounts claimed by the DRC and the underlying methodology are based on the expert report by Mr. Nest. * 324. Uganda submits that the DRC has not proven any damage or provided any valuation with respect to tin and tungsten. According to Uganda, Mr. Nest’s estimates must be disregarded because they are contrary to the non ultra petita rule, which precludes the Court from awarding a party more than it requested. * 325. According to the report by Mr. Nest, tin ore extracted in the DRC is often found in the same ore body as coltan. Referring to the “3Ts”  tin, tantalite and tungsten  the expert notes in his report that, “[e]xcluding tin and tungsten given the attention paid to these resources would be an error [because of] intense interest in these minerals and their connection to conflict in [the] DRC”. At the same time, Mr. Nest notes that probably only limited value was exploited from tin and tungsten by UPDF personnel or by other actors in Ituri. When explaining the inclusion of the two minerals in the expert report, he clarifies that “[t]his report estimates that limited value was exploited from tin and tungsten. However, given public interest in these resources they have been included to flag their relative insignificance as sources of value exploited by personnel in either Ituri or non-Ituri.” * * - 90 - 326. The Court considers that the inclusion of tin and tungsten in the scope of the expert report was permissible under the terms of reference (see paragraph 276 above). The Court notes that Mr. Nest’s expert report refers only to evidence of the transit of small quantities of tin and tungsten through Ituri, which in itself does not constitute looting, plundering or exploitation. In particular, he underlines that he included those two minerals only “in order to flag their relative insignificance as sources of value exploited by personnel in either Ituri or non-Ituri” (see paragraph 325 above). 327. Given that there is limited evidence relating to tin and tungsten and that the expert noted the relative insignificance of these resources, in terms of the quantities exploited and the corresponding value, the Court decides that it will not take these two minerals into account in determining the compensation due for damage to natural resources. 3. Flora (a) Coffee 328. The DRC includes in its claim for reparation the damage resulting from the unlawful exploitation of coffee, and adopts the amounts given in Mr. Nest’s expert report, namely US$2,046,568 (Ituri) and US$722,804 (outside Ituri), amounting to US$2,769,372 in total. * 329. Uganda submits that the DRC has not proven any damage or provided any valuation with respect to its claim for coffee. Uganda contends that Mr. Nest’s estimates should be disregarded by the Court since they were made contrary to the non ultra petita rule. * 330. The Court-appointed expert explains that he understood the terms of reference to be non-exhaustive. He maintains that, since he was explicitly asked to base his report on the UNPE reports, “[n]eglecting coffee, in [his] view, would be an error” as “UNPE (2001a; 2001b; 2002a; 2002b) and MONUC (2004) specifically include coffee in their reports”. He estimates the damage resulting from the exploitation of coffee at US$2,046,568 (Ituri) and US$722,804 (outside Ituri), amounting to a total of US$2,769,372. According to Mr. Nest, “[w]ithin Ituri all armed forces probably stole limited quantities of coffee”, and “[o]utside Ituri, any theft of coffee by UPDF personnel was probably minor”. * * - 91 - 331. The Court considers that the inclusion of coffee in the scope of the expert report was permissible under the terms of reference (see paragraph 276 above). Mr. Nest’s findings with respect to coffee are corroborated to a certain extent by other evidence. For instance, the Porter Commission confirmed allegations indicating the looting, plundering and exploitation of coffee attributable to Uganda outside Ituri (e.g. Porter Commission Report, pp. 18, 82-83 and 89) where, according to the expert, 70 per cent of the exploited coffee was produced. The findings of the Porter Commission regarding coffee were also cited by the Court in 2005 (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 250-251, paras. 240 and 242, with reference to paragraph 13.1 of the Porter Commission Report). The exploitation of coffee in Ituri is further mentioned in a 2001 HRW report (HRW, “Uganda in Eastern DRC. Fueling Political and Ethnic Strife”, p. 39). The Court therefore considers that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that Uganda is responsible for damage resulting from the looting, plundering and exploitation of coffee. 332. However, since these reports only contain anecdotal evidence, and since the expert could otherwise only rely on an uncorroborated report by a Congolese non-governmental organization, the Court considers that it is appropriate to award compensation at a level lower than that calculated by the Court-appointed expert. On this basis, the Court will award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for all damage to natural resources (see paragraph 366 below). (b) Timber 333. The DRC claims US$100 million for the unlawful exploitation of timber. During the oral proceedings, the DRC stated that it was claiming, “in respect of flora, primarily, US$100 million, and, in the alternative, the . . . minimum amount of US$85,483,758 [for damage within Ituri]”. The DRC contends that the invasion and occupation of Congolese territory by Ugandan armed forces damaged the DRC’s flora, particularly through deforestation for the purposes of timber exploitation, in the provinces of Orientale and North Kivu. 334. To substantiate the extent of the damage and its attribution to Uganda, the DRC mainly relies on the case study concerning the DARA-Forest company taken from the first UNPE report (United Nations, doc. S/2001/357 of 12 April 2001, paras. 47-54). The DRC states that the scale of the commercial damage is illustrated by the market value of the 48,000 cubic metres of timber that DARA-Forest exported annually and exclusively to Uganda between September 1998 and 2003 from the territory where the Ugandan army was operating. The DRC admits that the UNPE amended its analysis in relation to the DARA-Forest company and noted that it appeared that the Government of the DRC still recognized the companies operating in rebel-held areas. The DRC also acknowledges that the Porter Commission Report disputed many of the assertions made by the UNPE in its initial report, including the claim linking Ugandan authorities to the DARA-Forest company. The DRC maintains that the Commission’s detailed analysis indicates various instances of exploitation for which Uganda was responsible, including timber smuggling in the provinces of Orientale and North Kivu, the UPDF’s involvement in that trafficking, and the scale and volume of the activity of DARA-Forest. The DRC also highlights that the UNPE and the Porter Commission confirm that the harvested forests, except the one in Beni, are located in Ituri, where Uganda was the occupying Power (Porter Commission Report, pp. 54-55, 61-62). - 92 - 335. The DRC mainly bases its claim on the alleged commercial value of exports by the DARA-Forest company. The DRC uses data on export prices from the International Tropical Timber Organization to calculate the total commercial value of the timber exported by DARA-Forest between 1998 and 2003. Based on these data for the relevant years, the DRC puts forward an average export price of US$439.30 per cubic metre for tropical sawn timber. It submits that DARA-Forest’s illegal exports spanned a period of four and a half years. On that basis, the DRC calculates that those exports have a total commercial value of US$94,888,800. * 336. In Uganda’s view, the DRC has submitted no evidence to justify the compensation claimed for deforestation. 337. As to the extent of the alleged damage, Uganda observes that the DRC’s claim is founded entirely on the case study of DARA-Forest, which the Porter Commission refuted as “fundamentally flawed” and which the UNPE itself retracted. Uganda points to the findings of the Porter Commission according to which “Dara’s operation . . . was not illegal exploitation” and “therefore should not have been . . . used as a basis for criticism” of Uganda. Moreover, Uganda highlights the Commission’s conclusion that “[t]here is no evidence . . . that Uganda as a country or as a [g]overnment harvests timber in the Democratic Republic of Congo”. Uganda maintains that with regard to the few instances in which the Porter Commission described the involvement of Ugandan soldiers in the exploitation of timber, the DRC offers no evidence specifying and proving the exact injury resulting from such exploitation. 338. Uganda also criticizes the DRC’s method of valuation, in particular its use of market value to calculate the damage, arguing that any injury to the DRC would have been limited to lost concession payments and taxes. However, according to Uganda, in the present case no compensation is due since the DRC’s own evidence showed that DARA-Forest adhered to all the regulations in force and paid its taxes. Uganda adds that, even if the price of timber exports were relevant to this analysis, the average price claimed by the DRC is unsupported by reliable evidence. * 339. Mr. Nest uses a “proxy tax” (see paragraph 271 above) to arrive at the conclusion that the DRC is owed compensation for the timber exploitation in the amount of US$3,438,704 (US$2,793,301 in Ituri; US$645,402 outside Ituri). * * - 93 - 340. The Court is of the view that the evidence submitted by the DRC does not support the amount claimed as compensation for the unlawful exploitation of timber. The methodology applied by the DRC to substantiate its claim is not convincing. The Porter Commission concluded that the DARA-Forest case study “was fundamentally flawed” and that it was “unable to find support for any single allegation made in this so-called Case Study” (Porter Commission Report, p. 64). Furthermore, as to areas outside Ituri, the evidence on which the DRC relies does not prove Uganda’s involvement in the exploitation of timber by the DARA-Forest company. According to the addendum to the report of the UNPE, the exploitation licence held by DARA-Forest was granted by the Congolese Government which continued to approve the company’s operations in rebel-held areas. Moreover, according to the Porter Commission Report, during the occupation of Ituri DARA-Forest continued to pay taxes at the same bank as it had done before the area came under rebel control (ibid., pp. 62-63). 341. In its questions put to the Parties under Article 62, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Court invited the DRC to provide it with evidence regarding the “locations, ownership, average production, and concessions or licenses for each . . . forest”. However, the DRC failed to do so. Instead, the DRC continued to rely on the DARA Forest case study during the oral proceedings. 342. The Court further considers that the report by Mr. Nest provides little support for the amount claimed by the DRC. Notably, he gives lower average prices for timber than those put forward by the DRC. 343. However, the Court recognizes that the Porter Commission Report contains indications that Uganda was involved in timber exploitation (Porter Commission Report, p. 153). The Court also notes that there is additional evidence of exploitation of timber in Ituri (see e.g. Final UNPE report, United Nations doc. S/2002/1146 of 16 October 2002, p. 22, para. 116; Mapping Report, para. 751). Furthermore, the report by the Court-appointed expert estimates that a considerable amount of exploited timber stems from what he terms the “Ugandan area of influence”. 344. The Court considers that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that Uganda owes reparation for damage resulting from the looting, plundering and exploitation of timber. The Court nevertheless notes that Mr. Nest’s calculations in relation to timber are based on less precise information and rougher estimates than were available to him, for example, in relation to gold. The amount of compensation should therefore be considerably lower than his estimate. On this basis, the Court will award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for all damage to natural resources (see paragraph 366 below). (c) Environmental damage resulting from deforestation 345. In its written pleadings, the DRC did not raise a separate claim with respect to environmental damage and referred only once to “damage done to biodiversity and the habitats of animal species” as part of its claims for compensation for deforestation. However, the DRC reserved - 94 - its right to supplement its claim concerning damage to flora, noting that “a scientific study ha[d] shown that the massive deforestation in the east of the country [was] most pronounced in those areas where the Ugandan armed forces [had been] operating”. In its oral pleadings, the DRC stated that its claim of US$100,000,000 for damage to flora comprised damage caused by the commercial exploitation of timber and damage caused by deforestation, and thus environmental damage. Given that the DRC values the unlawful exploitation of timber in Ituri at between approximately US$85,500,000 and US$95,000,000, the remainder (between US$5 million and US$14.5 million) may be understood as covering environmental damage resulting from deforestation, in particular, a loss of biodiversity. However, the DRC offers no evidence for the extent of this damage, nor does it offer a methodology for its valuation. * 346. Uganda did not address the claim for compensation for environmental damage separately from that for the exploitation of timber. * 347. Mr. Nest clarified that he understood the DRC’s claim for damage due to “deforestation” as referring to “timber production”. Therefore, he did not address the assessment of environmental damage separately from the exploitation of timber. * * 348. The Court has held that “it is consistent with the principles of international law governing the consequences of internationally wrongful acts, including the principle of full reparation, to hold that compensation is due for damage caused to the environment, in and of itself” (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 28, para. 41) and that “damage to the environment, and the consequent impairment or loss of the ability of the environment to provide goods and services, is compensable under international law” (ibid., p. 28, para. 42). 349. The Court also recalls that in Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I) it found with respect to environmental damage that - 95 - “[t]he damage may be due to several concurrent causes, or the state of science regarding the causal link between the wrongful act and the damage may be uncertain. These are difficulties that must be addressed as and when they arise in light of the facts of the case at hand and the evidence presented to the Court. Ultimately, it is for the Court to decide whether there is a sufficient causal nexus between the wrongful act and the injury suffered.” (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 34). 350. However, in the present case the DRC did not provide the Court with any basis for assessing damage to the environment, in particular to biodiversity, through deforestation. The Court is thus unable to determine the extent of the DRC’s injury, even on an approximate basis, and therefore dismisses the claim for environmental damage resulting from deforestation. 4. Fauna 351. In its Memorial, the DRC claimed US$2,692,980,468 for alleged direct and indirect loss of wildlife in four national parks (Virunga National Park, Garamba National Park, the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Maiko National Park). During the oral proceedings, the DRC stated that it was claiming “a minimum amount of US$680,902,068” for direct losses in two of its national parks, the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Virunga National Park. 352. The DRC submits that it was difficult to assess the injury related to fauna given “the sheer scale of the damage inflicted, its duration, the diversity of forms it took [and] the difficulty of collecting data in areas which had been under Uganda’s control for a long period”. The DRC emphasizes that the Okapi Wildlife Reserve is largely located in Ituri, which was under Ugandan occupation during the relevant period. It also specifies that “a small part of Virunga Park lies within Ituri”. 353. To substantiate its claim, the DRC mainly relies on a 2016 study titled “Evaluation of the damage caused to Congolese fauna by Uganda between 1998 and 2003”, which was prepared by a team of experts from the University of Kinshasa using the estimates of the ICCN, the body responsible for managing national parks in the DRC. According to this study, 54,892 animals were killed as a result of Uganda’s conduct. The DRC also makes reference to reports by UNESCO, to the UNPE reports and to a study by the ICCN based on aerial counts in 2003 with respect to Virunga National Park. In response to Uganda’s criticism of this last ICCN study, the DRC submits that the ICCN “carried out aerial counts in 2003, in conjunction with the Zoological Societies of London and Frankfurt, the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the International Rhino Foundation” and “compared [its estimates] to those of UNESCO”. - 96 - 354. With respect to its method of valuation, the DRC contends that “the price fixed for each animal has been set on the basis of prices habitually applied in international markets, or in unlawful markets in the case of species listed in Appendix I to [the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]”, and that these prices were adjusted to reflect only the share of the damage caused by Uganda. * 355. Uganda argues that the DRC’s claim for loss of wildlife falls outside the scope of the 2005 Judgment. Further, even if the Court’s findings on the merits permitted a claim for compensation relating to wildlife, the DRC’s claims in this regard clearly exceed the scope of those findings, given that the DRC only presented to the Court certain limited acts concerning harm to wildlife at the merits phase. 356. Uganda maintains that the DRC must present convincing evidence with a high level of certainty of specific internationally wrongful acts attributable to Uganda that resulted in specific wildlife loss to the DRC, as well as the valuation of that loss. According to Uganda, the DRC does not satisfy this requirement. Uganda emphasizes that the DRC bases its claim for direct losses on a single source, the study by the ICCN, a Congolese governmental agency. According to Uganda, the DRC does not explain how and on what basis the ICCN collected and compiled that information. Uganda asserts that the DRC appears to have fabricated the numbers claimed for the purposes of this litigation. It points out that the UNESCO report cited by the DRC in fact contradicts the findings set out in the study by the ICCN and that the findings of the UNPE on which the DRC relies were refuted by the Porter Commission. 357. Uganda argues that the DRC assigns monetary values to killed and unborn animals based on “unreliable, inappropriate and arbitrary prices”, including “black market” prices. Uganda also asserts that claiming compensation for unborn offspring leads to double counting because ordinarily the value of an animal captures its ability to produce offspring. Finally, Uganda points to flaws in the DRC’s methodology for calculating the number of offspring that would have been born. * * 358. The Court recalls that it found that the DRC’s claims relating to damage to fauna are encompassed by the scope of its 2005 Judgment (see paragraph 276 above). However, the Court is of the view that the evidence submitted by the DRC does not support the amount of its claim. The 2016 study prepared by a team of experts of the University of Kinshasa (see paragraph 353 above) needs to be treated with caution, bearing in mind that the Court stated in its 2005 Judgment that it - 97 - “w[ould] treat with caution evidentiary materials specially prepared for [a case before it] and also materials emanating from a single source” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 201, para. 61). Furthermore, the Court notes that neither the studies that are based on information from the ICCN (see paragraph 353 above) nor the UNESCO report cited by the DRC sufficiently explains the way in which the respective estimates were reached. Furthermore, these reports are insufficient to establish a causal nexus between any damage in park areas outside Ituri and the wrongful acts of Uganda. The Court therefore limits its further examination to the claims of the DRC relating to the parts of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Virunga National Park which are located in Ituri. 359. The Court observes that some of the damage claimed by the DRC is alleged to have occurred in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve, 90 per cent of which is located in Ituri, and in the northern part of Virunga National Park, a small part of which is located in Ituri. The Court recalls that Uganda is internationally responsible for failing to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri in respect of all acts of looting, plundering or exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory, which includes damage to wildlife, and that it owes reparation for such damage (see paragraphs 79, 275 and 278 above). 360. The Court further recalls that “the absence of adequate evidence as to the extent of material damage will not, in all situations, preclude an award of compensation for that damage” (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26-27, para. 35). It notes that wildlife is often subject to less social and technical monitoring than human beings or commercial goods. In this context, the Court ascribes particular weight to reports by international organizations specifically mandated to monitor the sites in question, to the extent that these reports are of probative value and are corroborated, if necessary, by other credible sources. 361. The Court notes that various reports from international organizations contain substantial indications that significant damage was inflicted upon wildlife in Ituri during the period of Ugandan occupation (UNESCO, World Heritage in the Congo Basin, 2004, p. 27; Mapping Report, para. 745; UNPE Interim report, United Nations, doc. S/2002/565 of 22 May 2002, para. 52). The Court also observes that Uganda itself has confirmed the existence of severe poaching in the occupied territory, when it pointed out that it had started an anti-poaching initiative (“Operation Tango”) in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Virunga National Park as from late October 2000. In this context, Uganda cites an article, only parts of which Uganda included in an annex to its written pleadings, stating in particular that “[a]lthough poaching began in earnest in 1996, the heaviest slaughter of wildlife occurred between 1998 and 2000”, and that “[a]ccording to reliable trade sources, much of the tooled ivory on the Ugandan market is being smuggled from Ituri”. Since 90 per cent of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve is located in Ituri, Uganda had an obligation at the relevant time to fulfil its duties as an occupying Power (see paragraph 79 above). 362. Under these circumstances, the Court considers that the information given in the reports by international organizations is sufficient for it to conclude that significant damage to fauna occurred in the areas in which Uganda was an occupying Power. The Court therefore concludes that Uganda is liable to make reparation for damage occurring in those parts of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Virunga National Park located in Ituri, where Uganda was the occupying Power. - 98 - 363. While the available evidence is not sufficient to determine a reasonably precise or even an approximate number of animal deaths for which Uganda owes reparation, the Court is nevertheless satisfied, on the basis of the reports cited above (see paragraph 361), that Uganda is responsible for a significant amount of damage to fauna in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and in the northern part of Virunga National Park, to the extent that these parks are located in Ituri. On this basis the Court will award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for all damage to natural resources. 5. Conclusion 364. The Court observes that the evidence presented to it and the expert report by Mr. Nest demonstrate that a large quantity of natural resources was looted, plundered and exploited in the DRC between 1998 and 2003. In respect of Ituri, Uganda is liable to make reparation for all such acts. As to areas outside of Ituri, a significant amount of natural resources looted, plundered and exploited is attributable to Uganda. However, neither the report by the Court-appointed expert nor the evidence presented by the DRC or set out in reports by the Porter Commission, United Nations bodies and non-governmental organizations is sufficient to prove the precise extent of the looting, plundering and exploitation for which Uganda is liable. The expert report by Mr. Nest provides a methodologically solid and persuasive estimate on the basis of the available evidence. This expert report is particularly helpful regarding the valuation of the different natural resources it covers (minerals, coffee and timber). However, while the expert report by Mr. Nest, and, with respect to fauna, the reports by specialized United Nations bodies, may offer the best possible estimate of the scale of the exploitation of natural resources under the circumstances, they do not permit the Court to reach a sufficiently precise determination of the extent or the valuation of the damage. 365. As it did with respect to damage to persons and to property, the Court must take account of the extraordinary circumstances of the present case, which have restricted the ability of the DRC and of the expert to present evidence with greater probative value (see paragraphs 120-126 above). The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). 366. Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 260-363 above, specifically 298, 310, 322, 332, 344, 363), in particular the findings and estimates contained in the report by the Court-appointed expert Mr. Nest, as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69-126 above), the Court will award compensation for the looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources in the form of global sum of US$60,000,000. D. Macroeconomic damage 367. Finally, the DRC claims US$5,714,000,775 for macroeconomic damage. - 99 - 368. In the operative part of its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that “Uganda, by engaging in military activities against the Democratic Republic of the Congo . . . violated the principle of non-use of force in international relations and the principle of non-intervention” and held “that the Republic of Uganda is under obligation to make reparation to the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the injury caused” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 280-282, para. 345, subparas. (1) and (5)). The Court did not, however, specifically mention macroeconomic damage. * * 369. The DRC submits that the unlawful use of large-scale force by Uganda caused a considerable slowdown in the economic activity of the DRC, constituting a loss of revenue for which full compensation must be paid. The DRC invokes the principle that reparation must, as far as possible, wipe out all the consequences of the illegal act and re-establish the situation which would, in all probability, have existed if that act had not been committed (Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, p. 47). The DRC also claims, referring to Articles 31 and 36 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, that compensation should cover any financially assessable damage including loss of profits in so far as it is established. Therefore, in the DRC’s view, general economic consequences are not excluded from the compensable damage. 370. The DRC submits that any past State practice or jurisprudence that rejected reparation for macroeconomic damage resulting from war or armed conflict was based on special provisions peculiar to each case in point and that all these cases were exceptions to the general rule of full reparation. 371. According to the DRC, Uganda caused compensable general economic injury, in addition to more specific harm. The DRC maintains that there is no risk of double recovery if compensation for macroeconomic damage is awarded together with compensation for loss suffered by individuals. In this regard, the DRC argues that, if a country suffers on both the macroeconomic and the microeconomic level, the former represents a loss of profits, whereas the latter represents damage to the existing assets of businesses or production units. 372. To substantiate its claim, the DRC commissioned two experts from the University of Kinshasa to estimate “the macroeconomic damage caused by the 1998-2003 war”. This 2016 study (hereinafter the “Kinshasa study”) is based on a model that was developed by two economists who specialize in modelling the impact of war on the economic performance of affected countries. The DRC maintains that there is nothing speculative about macroeconomic damage, since the effects of war on the macroeconomic balance of affected States, the progress of the economy and its performance in terms of growth, are measurable and have indeed been measured by the DRC using proven methods and reliable data. The DRC further submits that the data it provided show that although the Congolese economy was already declining in 1998, the downturn was precipitated by the war and the economy began to recover when the war ended, demonstrating that the war had caused specific and identifiable macroeconomic harm. - 100 - 373. According to the Kinshasa study, the macroeconomic damage suffered by the DRC as a result of the 1998-2003 war amounts to US$12,697,779,493.27. Since, in the DRC’s submission, the harm resulting from the war was not caused solely by Uganda’s internationally wrongful conduct but was also the consequence of acts of other States, Uganda’s share amounts to 45 per cent of the total. The sum claimed by the DRC under this head of damage is thus US$5,714,000,775. * 374. Uganda disputes the DRC’s claim for macroeconomic damage on several grounds. 375. Uganda submits that the DRC’s claim is not covered by the 2005 Judgment. In Uganda’s view, the DRC must show an “exact injury” resulting from “specific actions” that constitute violations of international law for which the Court has established Uganda’s responsibility, which the DRC has not done with respect to macroeconomic damage. 376. Uganda also maintains that macroeconomic damage resulting from armed conflict is not compensable under international law. Uganda argues that this is confirmed by the uniform rejection of such claims in State practice and in jurisprudence. Regarding State practice, Uganda refers to the Treaty of Versailles and the unilateral or conventional reparation schemes after the Second World War, none of which included an obligation to pay reparation for the macroeconomic impact of the war. With regard to jurisprudence, Uganda cites the EECC final awards on Ethiopia’s damage and on Eritrea’s damage, respectively, for the propositions that international law imposes no responsibility to compensate for the “generalized economic and social consequences of war”, and that past tribunals have not “found generalized conditions of war-related economic disruption and decline to constitute compensable elements of damage, even in the case of some types of injury bearing a relatively close connection to illegal conduct”. 377. Uganda further considers that macroeconomic damage is not subject to compensation under international law because it is inherently speculative. More specifically, Uganda claims that the causal nexus between its violation of the prohibition of the use of force and any possible macroeconomic loss is not sufficiently direct and is too remote. Uganda asserts that the DRC’s claim itself illustrates the speculative nature of this head of damage, as “no claim for compensation can be justified by recourse to probabilities, variables, statistical methods and cryptic formulas”. 378. In addition, Uganda submits that the concept of lost profits does not encompass macroeconomic damage as claimed by the DRC. In this regard, Uganda argues that lost profits relate to income-producing assets. Uganda contends that the economy of a nation does not constitute an income-producing asset. According to Uganda, the DRC fails to identify any assets that were specifically designed to produce profits and were affected by Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts. - 101 - 379. Uganda also argues that the macroeconomic damage for which the DRC seeks compensation includes damage that is also claimed elsewhere in its written pleadings and that the DRC thus effectively seeks double recovery under the guise of macroeconomic damage. 380. Finally, Uganda asserts that, from an economic science perspective, the methodology by which the DRC substantiates its claim is flawed. Noting that the Kinshasa study mainly relies on a model developed by two economists, Uganda commissioned the same two experts, Mr. Paul Collier and Ms Anke Hoeffler of the University of Oxford, to prepare an assessment (hereinafter the “Collier and Hoeffler assessment”) in which they set out their critical views of the Kinshasa study. Apart from alleging several technical errors and raising issues with the data used in the Kinshasa study, the Collier and Hoeffler assessment points to an “overall flaw [that] is more fundamental” and consists in an implausible assumption of positive growth in gross domestic product in the DRC after 1998 and in disregarding the rise of global commodity prices from 2001 onwards. * * 381. The Court does not need to decide, in the present proceedings, whether a claim for macroeconomic damage resulting from a violation of the prohibition of the use of force, or a claim for such damage more generally, is compensable under international law. It is enough for the Court to note that the DRC has not shown a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the internationally wrongful act of Uganda and any alleged macroeconomic damage. In any event, the DRC has not provided a basis for arriving at even a rough estimate of any possible macroeconomic damage. 382. The Court considers that it is not sufficient, as the DRC claims, to show “an uninterrupted chain of events linking the damage to Uganda’s wrongful conduct”. Rather, the Court is required to determine “whether there is a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the wrongful act . . . and the injury suffered by the Applicant” (see paragraph 93 above; Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 32; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 332, para. 14; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 233-234, para. 462). Compensation can thus only be awarded for losses that are not too remote from the unlawful use of force (commentary to Article 31 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 93, para. 10). A violation of the prohibition of the use of force does not give rise to an obligation to make reparation for all that comes afterwards, and Uganda’s conduct is not the only relevant cause of all that happened during the conflict (see EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 719, para. 282). 383. Uganda’s unlawful use of force may well have had a negative effect on the economy of the DRC. In these proceedings, however, the Court must determine whether any macroeconomic damage allegedly suffered by the DRC is supported by the evidence, and whether the DRC has established a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the internationally wrongful conduct of Uganda identified by the Court in its 2005 Judgment and this head of damage. The - 102 - Kinshasa study on which the DRC relies does not provide any certainty regarding the existence or extent of the negative effect on the economy alleged by the DRC. The countervailing Collier and Hoeffler assessment casts serious doubts on the Kinshasa study, at least regarding the extent of any possible damage and the potential effects of any independent causal factors. The Court also notes that the methodology used in the Kinshasa study is based on an econometric model that is designed to show general trends or verify certain hypotheses that may suffice for abstract scientific purposes or policy recommendations. The Court is not convinced that the methodology used in the study is sufficiently reliable for an award of reparation in a judicial proceeding. 384. The Court concludes that the DRC has not demonstrated that a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus exists between the internationally wrongful acts of Uganda and any possible macroeconomic damage. The Court therefore cannot award compensation to the DRC for losses allegedly arising from the general disruption to the economy as a result of the conflict (see EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 747, para. 395). The Court thus rejects the claim of the DRC for macroeconomic damage. IV. SATISFACTION 385. The DRC argues that, regardless of the amount awarded by the Court, compensation as a form of reparation is not sufficient to remedy fully the damage caused to the DRC and its population. It therefore asks that Uganda be required to give satisfaction through: (i) the criminal investigation and prosecution of officers and soldiers of the UPDF; (ii) the payment of US$25 million for the creation of a fund to promote reconciliation between the Hema and the Lendu in Ituri; and (iii) the payment of US$100 million for the non-material harm suffered by the DRC as a result of the war. 386. Uganda, for its part, is of the view that the DRC’s request for criminal investigations and prosecutions is a new liability claim which was not brought at the merits phase. Furthermore, it asserts that the claim for a payment of US$125 million concerns the same injury already covered by the DRC’s other claims, and that, in any event, satisfaction should take the form of a purely symbolic payment. * * 387. Before examining the three forms of satisfaction sought by the DRC, the Court recalls that, in general, a declaration of violation is, in itself, appropriate satisfaction in most cases (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 106, para. 282 (1); Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 245, para. 204; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 234, para. 463, and p. 239, para. 471 (9); Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 35). However, satisfaction can take an entirely different form depending on the circumstances of the case, and in so far as compensation does not wipe out all the consequences of an internationally wrongful act. - 103 - 388. As regards the first measure sought by the DRC, namely the conduct of criminal investigations and prosecutions, the Court recalls that under Article 37 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility: “1. The State responsible for an internationally wrongful act is under an obligation to give satisfaction for the injury caused by that act insofar as it cannot be made good by restitution or compensation. 2. Satisfaction may consist in an acknowledgement of the breach, an expression of regret, a formal apology or another appropriate modality.” 389. The Court observes that the forms of satisfaction listed in the second paragraph of this provision are not exhaustive. In principle, satisfaction can include measures such as “disciplinary or penal action against the individuals whose conduct caused the internationally wrongful act” (commentary to Article 37 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 106, para. 5). 390. The Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it found that Ugandan troops had committed grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions. The Court observes that, pursuant to Article 146 of the Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949 and to Article 85 of the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), Uganda has a duty to investigate, prosecute and punish those responsible for the commission of such violations. There is no need for the Court to order any additional specific measure of satisfaction relating to the conduct of criminal investigations or prosecutions. The Respondent is required to investigate and prosecute by virtue of the obligations incumbent on it. 391. As regards the second measure of satisfaction sought by the DRC, namely the payment of US$25 million for the creation of a fund to promote reconciliation between the Hema and the Lendu in Ituri, the Court recalls that in its 2005 Judgment it considered that the UPDF had “incited ethnic conflicts and t[aken] no action to prevent such conflicts in Ituri district” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 240, para. 209). In this case, however, the material damage caused by the ethnic conflicts in Ituri is already covered by the compensation awarded for damage to persons and to property. The Court nevertheless invites the Parties to co-operate in good faith to establish different methods and means of promoting reconciliation between the Hema and Lendu ethnic groups in Ituri and ensure lasting peace between them. 392. Lastly, the Court cannot uphold the third measure of satisfaction sought by the DRC, namely the payment of US$100 million for non-material harm. There is no basis for granting satisfaction for non-material harm to the DRC in such circumstances, given the subject-matter of reparation in international law and international practice in this regard. The EECC rejected Ethiopia’s claim for moral damage suffered by Ethiopians and by the State itself on account of Eritrea’s illegal use of force (Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 662, paras. 54-55, and p. 664, para. 61). In the circumstances of the case, the Court considers that the non-material harm for which the DRC seeks satisfaction is included in the global sums awarded by the Court for various heads of damage. - 104 - V. OTHER REQUESTS 393. The Court now turns to the other requests made by the DRC in its final submissions, namely that the Court order Uganda to reimburse the DRC’s costs incurred during the proceedings, that the Court grant pre-judgment and post-judgment interest, and that the Court remain seised of the case until Uganda has fully made the reparations and paid compensation as ordered by it. A. Costs 394. The DRC in its final submissions requests the Court to order that the costs it incurred in the present case be reimbursed by Uganda. It argues that there are special circumstances for doing so, referring in particular to the gravity of the violations of international law from which the DRC and its people suffered, as well as the catastrophic scale of the damage that resulted. The DRC submits that it has faced an enormous task in identifying and assessing that damage, which has placed an additional burden on already impoverished public finances, a burden that the DRC would not have had to bear if large areas of its territory had not been invaded and occupied by the Ugandan armed forces for a number of years. In the DRC’s view, those circumstances fully justify making an exception, in the present case, to the general rule set forth in Article 64 of the Statute of the Court that each party bear its own costs. 395. Uganda, for its part, argues that granting the DRC’s request for costs would run counter to the presumption set forth in Article 64 of the Court’s Statute, and that it would be contrary to the practice of the Court and its predecessor, neither having ever ordered one party to pay the costs of the other. Uganda contends that only if the Court were faced with a serious abuse of process by a party might there be a possibility of departing from the principle; in its view, such circumstances are not met in the present case. Uganda submits that it was fully justified in resisting the DRC’s claims and that there is therefore no basis for ordering it to pay the DRC’s costs. In its final submissions, Uganda requests that the Court declare that each Party should bear its own costs. * * 396. Article 64 of the Statute provides that “[u]nless otherwise decided by the Court, each party shall bear its own costs”. Taking into account the circumstances of this case, including the fact that Uganda prevailed on one of its counter-claims against the DRC and subsequently waived its own claim for compensation, the Court sees no sufficient reason that would justify departing, in the present case, from the general rule set forth in Article 64 of the Statute. Accordingly, each Party shall bear its own costs. B. Pre-judgment and post-judgment interest 397. The DRC in its final submissions requests the Court to order Uganda to pay pre-judgment interest and post-judgment interest. With respect to pre-judgment interest, the DRC observes that, according to Article 38, paragraph 1, of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, “[i]nterest on any principal sum due . . . shall be payable when necessary in order to ensure full reparation”. The DRC - 105 - contends that, in light of the principle of full reparation and taking into account the passage of time, pre-judgment interest is appropriate in the present case. The DRC in its written pleadings requested the Court to fix the rate of the pre-judgment interest at 6 per cent. At the hearings, it proposed a rate of 4 per cent, payable from the filing of the Memorial on Reparation, due on heads of claim other than those for which the amount of compensation awarded by the Court, based on an overall assessment, already takes into account the passage of time. 398. The DRC also requests that post-judgment interest, at a rate of 6 per cent, accrue on the principal sum awarded by the Court, should Uganda fail to pay it “on the date of the judgment”. * 399. Uganda argues that ordering pre-judgment interest in the circumstances of the case would not be consistent with the practice of the Court or the rules applicable to inter-State compensation under international law. In this regard, it submits that pre-judgment interest would apply only in circumstances where the Court determines that a fixed sum was due to the applicant as of a specified date in the past, and to the extent that is necessary to ensure full reparation. Uganda argues, however, that no such circumstances exist in the present case. Rather, it asserts that the DRC generally seeks compensation based on a present-day valuation and that there is no basis for supplementing that valuation with compensatory interest. 400. Uganda considers that in the circumstances of the case, the DRC is only entitled to post-judgment interest. In this regard, it accepts that, should the Court order Uganda to pay compensation to the DRC, it could order that, if such compensation is not paid within a reasonable period of time, interest would accrue on the amount owed until the date of payment. However, Uganda argues that what constitutes a “reasonable period of time” for such payment must be assessed in light of the amount established by the Court. Given contemporary market conditions, it urges the Court to set such interest at an annual rate no higher than 3 per cent. * * 401. With respect to the DRC’s claim for pre-judgment interest, the Court observes that, in the practice of international courts and tribunals, while pre-judgment interest may be awarded if full reparation for injury caused by an internationally wrongful act so requires, interest is not an autonomous form of reparation, nor is it a necessary part of compensation in every case (see Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 58, para. 151). The Court notes that in determining the amount to be awarded for each head of damage, it has taken into account the passage of time (cf. ibid., p. 58, para. 152). In this regard, the Court observes that the DRC itself has stated in its final submissions - 106 - that it is not requesting pre-judgment interest in respect of damage for which “the amount of compensation awarded by the Court, based on an overall assessment, already takes account of the passage of time”. The Court considers that there is thus no need to award pre-judgment interest in the circumstances of the case. 402. With regard to the DRC’s claim for post-judgment interest, the Court recalls that it has granted such interest in past cases in which it has awarded compensation, having observed that “the award of post-judgment interest is consistent with the practice of other international courts and tribunals” (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 343, para. 56; see also Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, ICJ Reports 2018 (I), p. 58, paras. 154-155). The Court expects timely payment and has no reason to assume that Uganda will not act accordingly. Nevertheless, consistent with its practice, the Court decides that, should payment be delayed, post-judgment interest shall be paid. It will accrue at an annual rate of 6 per cent on any overdue amount (see paragraph 406 below). C. Request that the Court remain seised of the case 403. In its final submissions, the DRC also requests that the Court “declare that the present dispute will not be fully and finally resolved until Uganda has actually paid the reparations and compensation ordered by the Court” and that “[u]ntil that time, the Court will remain seised of the present case”. * * 404. The Court observes that the DRC, by its request, is essentially asking the Court to supervise the implementation of its Judgment. In this regard, the Court notes that in none of its previous judgments on compensation has it considered it necessary to remain seised of the case until a final payment was received. The Court moreover considers that the award of post-judgment interest addresses the DRC’s concerns regarding timely compliance by the Respondent with the payment obligations set out in the present Judgment. In light of the above, there is no reason for the Court to remain seised of the case and the request of the DRC must therefore be rejected. VI. TOTAL SUM AWARDED 405. The total amount of compensation awarded to the DRC is US$325,000,000. This global sum includes US$225,000,000 for damage to persons, US$40,000,000 for damage to property, and US$60,000,000 for damage related to natural resources. 406. The total sum is to be paid in annual instalments of US$65,000,000, due on 1 September of each year, from 2022 to 2026. The Court decides that, should payment be delayed, post-judgment interest at an annual rate of 6 per cent on each instalment will accrue on any overdue amount from the day which follows the day on which the instalment was due. - 107 - 407. The Court is satisfied that the total sum awarded, and the terms of payment, remain within the capacity of Uganda to pay. Therefore, the Court does not need to consider the question whether, in determining the amount of compensation, account should be taken of the financial burden imposed on the responsible State, given its economic condition (see paragraph 110 above). 408. The Court notes that the reparation awarded to the DRC for damage to persons and to property reflects the harm suffered by individuals and communities as a result of Uganda’s breach of its international obligations. In this regard, the Court takes full cognizance of, and welcomes, the undertaking given by the Agent of the DRC during the oral proceedings regarding the fund that has been established by the Government of the DRC, according to which the compensation to be paid by Uganda will be fairly and effectively distributed to victims of the harm, under the supervision of organs whose members include representatives of victims and civil society and whose operation is supported by international experts. In distributing the sums awarded, the fund is encouraged to consider also the possibility of adopting measures for the benefit of the affected communities as a whole. * * * 409. For these reasons, THE COURT, (1) Fixes the following amounts for the compensation due from the Republic of Uganda to the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the damage caused by the violations of international obligations by the Republic of Uganda, as found by the Court in its Judgment of 19 December 2005: (a) By twelve votes to two, US$225,000,000 for damage to persons; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa, Nolte; AGAINST: Judge Salam; Judge ad hoc Daudet; (b) By twelve votes to two, US$40,000,000 for damage to property; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa, Nolte; AGAINST: Judge Salam; Judge ad hoc Daudet; - 108 - (c) Unanimously, US$60,000,000 for damage related to natural resources; (2) By twelve votes to two, Decides that the total amount due under point 1 above shall be paid in five annual instalments of US$65,000,000 starting on 1 September 2022; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; AGAINST: Judge Tomka; Judge ad hoc Daudet; (3) Unanimously, Decides that, should payment be delayed, post-judgment interest of 6 per cent will accrue on any overdue amount as from the day which follows the day on which the instalment was due; (4) By twelve votes to two, Rejects the request of the Democratic Republic of the Congo that the costs it incurred in the present case be borne by the Republic of Uganda; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; AGAINST: Judge Tomka; Judge ad hoc Daudet; (5) Unanimously, Rejects all other submissions made by the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this ninth day of February, two thousand and twenty-two, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Government of the Republic of Uganda, respectively. (Signed) Joan E. DONOGHUE, President. (Signed) Philippe GAUTIER, Registrar. - 109 - Judge TOMKA appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge YUSUF appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ROBINSON appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge SALAM appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge IWASAWA appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc DAUDET appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court. (Initialled) J.E.D. (Initialled) Ph.G. ___________

Bilingual Content

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES
SUR LE TERRITOIRE DU CONGO
(RÉPUBLIQUE DÉMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. OUGANDA)
RÉPARATIONS
ARRÊT DU 9 FÉVRIER 2022
2022
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
ARMED ACTIVITIES
ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO
(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. UGANDA)
REPARATIONS
JUDGMENT OF 9 FEBRUARY 2022
© 2023 CIJ/ICJ, Nations Unies/United Nations
Tous droits réservés/All rights reserved
imprimé en france/printed in france
Mode officiel de citation :
Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo
(République démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda),
réparations, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2022, p. 13
Official citation:
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo
(Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda),
Reparations, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2022, p. 13
ISSN 0074-4441
ISBN 978-92-1-003902-4
e-ISBN 978-92-1-002153-1
No de vente :
Sales number 1239
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES
SUR LE TERRITOIRE DU CONGO
(RÉPUBLIQUE DÉMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. OUGANDA)
RÉPARATIONS
ARMED ACTIVITIES
ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO
(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. UGANDA)
REPARATIONS
9 FÉVRIER 2022
ARRÊT
9 FEBRUARY 2022
JUDGMENT
13
4
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Paragraphes
Qualités 1-47
I. Introduction 48-59
II. Considérations générales 60-131
A. Contexte 61-68
B. Les principes et les règles applicables à l’évaluation des
réparations
en l’espèce 69-110
1. Les principes et les règles applicables selon les situations en
cause dans le conflit 73-84
a) En Ituri 74-79
b) Hors Ituri 80-84
2. Le lien de causalité entre les faits internationalement
illicites
et les préjudices subis 85-98
3. La nature, les formes et le montant de la réparation 99-110
C. La preuve 111-126
1. La charge de la preuve 115-119
2. Le standard de la preuve et le degré de certitude 120-126
D. Les types de dommages objets de la réparation 127-131
III. Indemnisation demandée par la RDC 132-384
A. Dommages aux personnes 133-226
1. Pertes en vies humaines 135-166
2. Atteintes aux personnes 167-181
3. Viols et violences sexuelles 182-193
4. Recrutement et déploiement d’enfants-soldats
194-206
5. Déplacements de population 207-225
6. Conclusion 226
B. Dommages aux biens 227-258
1. Aspects généraux 240-242
2. Ituri 243-249
3. Hors Ituri 250-253
4. Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL) 254-255
5. Biens des forces armées 256
6. Conclusion 257-258
C. Dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles 259-366
1. Aspects généraux 273-281
13
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
Chronology of the Procedure 1-47
I. Introduction 48-59
II. General Considerations 60-131
A. Context 61-68
B. The principles and rules applicable to the assessment ofreparations
in the present case 69-110
1. The principles and rules applicable to the different
situations
that arose during the conflict 73-84
(a) In Ituri 74-79
(b) Outside Ituri 80-84
2. The causal nexus between the internationally wrongful
acts and the injury suffered 85-98
3. The nature, form and amount of reparation 99-110
C. Questions of proof 111-126
1. The burden of proof 115-119
2. The standard of proof and degree of certainty 120-126
D. The forms of damage subject to reparation 127-131
III. Compensation Claimed by the DRC 132-384
A. Damage to persons 133-226
1. Loss of life 135-166
2. Injuries to persons 167-181
3. Rape and sexual violence 182-193
4. Recruitment and deployment of child soldiers 194-206
5. Displacement of populations 207-225
6. Conclusion 226
B. Damage to property 227-258
1. General aspects 240-242
2. Ituri 243-249
3. Outside Ituri 250-253
4. Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL) 254-255
5. Military property 256
6. Conclusion 257-258
C. Damage related to natural resources 259-366
1. General aspects 273-281
14 activités armées (arrêt)
5
2. Minerais 282-327
a) Or 282-298
b) Diamants 299-310
c) Coltan 311-322
d) Etain et tungstène 323-327
3. Flore 328-350
a) Café 328-332
b) Bois d’oeuvre 333-344
c) Dommages environnementaux résultant de la déforestation
345-350
4. Faune 351-363
5. Conclusion 364-366
D. Dommage macroéconomique 367-384
IV. Satisfaction 385-392
V. Autres demandes 393-404
A. Frais de procédure 394-396
B. Intérêts compensatoires et moratoires 397-402
C. Demande tendant à ce que la Cour reste saisie de l’affaire 403-404
VI. Total des indemnités 405-408
Dispositif 409
armed activities (judgment) 14
5
2. Minerals 282-327
(a) Gold 282-298
(b) Diamonds 299-310
(c) Coltan 311-322
(d) Tin and tungsten 323-327
3. Flora 328-350
(a) Coffee 328-332
(b) Timber 333-344
(c) Environmental damage resulting from deforesta-
tion 345-350
4. Fauna 351-363
5. Conclusion 364-366
D. Macroeconomic damage 367-384
IV. Satisfaction 385-392
V. Other Requests 393-404
A. Costs 394-396
B. Pre-judgment
and post-judgment
interest 397-402
C. Request that the Court remain seised of the case 403-404
VI. Total Sum Awarded 405-408
Operative Clause 409
15
6
ABRÉVIATIONS, SIGLES ET ACRONYMES
ACLED Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (projet
sur la cartographie des conflits armés et les données y
relatives)
ADRASS Association pour le développement de la recherche appliquée
en sciences sociales
ALC Armée de libération du Congo
Arrêt de 2005 Arrêt sur le fond rendu par la Cour en l’affaire des Activités
armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique
du Congo c. Ouganda) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 168)
Articles de la CDI
sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat
Articles de la Commission du droit international sur la
responsabilité de l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite
CDI Commission du droit international
CINU Commission d’indemnisation des Nations Unies
Commission d’enquête
congolaise
Commission d’experts établie en 2008 par le Gouvernement
congolais aux fins de procéder à l’identification des
victimes et à l’évaluation des dommages que celles-
ci ont
subis du fait des activités armées illicites de l’Ouganda
CPI Cour pénale internationale
CREE Commission des réclamations entre l’Erythrée et l’Ethiopie
Etude de Kinshasa Etude réalisée en 2016, à la demande de la RDC, par
deux experts de l’Université de Kinshasa sur l’estimation
du dommage macroéconomique causé par la guerre de
1998 à 2003
Evaluation Collier
et Hoeffler
Evaluation établie, à la demande de l’Ouganda,
par M. Paul Collier et Mme Anke Hoeffler concernant
une étude réalisée en 2016, à la demande de la RDC, sur
l’estimation du dommage macroéconomique causé par la
guerre de 1998 à 2003
FRPI Force de résistance patriotique en Ituri
15
6
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND SHORT FORMS
ACLED Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project
ADRASS Association pour le développement de la recherche appliquée
en sciences sociales (Association for the Development
of Applied Research in Social Sciences)
ALC Armée de libération du Congo (Congo Liberation Army)
Collier and Hoeffler
assessment
Assessment prepared by Mr. Paul Collier and Ms Anke
Hoeffler, at the request of Uganda, on a study carried
out in 2016, at the request of the DRC, estimating the
macroeconomic damage caused by the 1998-2003 war
Congolese Commission
of Inquiry
Expert Commission established by the Congolese Government
in 2008 to identify the victims and assess the
damage they suffered as a result of Uganda’s unlawful
armed activities
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
EECC Eritrea‑Ethiopia Claims Commission
FRPI Force de résistance patriotique en Ituri (Patriotic Resistance
Force in Ituri)
HRW Human Rights Watch
ICC International Criminal Court
ICCN Institut congolais pour la conservation de la nature
(Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation)
ILC International Law Commission
ILC Articles on
State Responsibility
The International Law Commission’s Articles on
Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful
Acts
Inter-Agency
Report
Report of the (United Nations) inter-agency
assessment
mission to Kisangani
IRC International Rescue Committee
Kinshasa study Study carried out in 2016, at the request of the DRC, by
two experts from the University of Kinshasa to estimate
the macroeconomic damage caused by the 1998-2003
war
16 activités armées (arrêt)
7
Groupe d’experts
de l’ONU
Groupe d’experts de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
sur l’exploitation illégale des ressources naturelles et
autres formes de richesses de la République démocratique
du Congo
HRW Human Rights Watch
ICCN Institut congolais pour la conservation de la nature
IRC International Rescue Committee
MLC Mouvement de libération du Congo
MONUC Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en République
démocratique du Congo
Rapport de la commission
Porter
Rapport final de la commission d’enquête judiciaire
chargée d’examiner les allégations relatives à l’exploitation
illégale des ressources naturelles et autres formes de
richesses en République démocratique du Congo établie
en 2001 (novembre 2002)
Rapport de la mission
interinstitutions
Rapport de la mission d’évaluation interinstitutions des
Nations Unies à Kisangani
Rapport Mapping Rapport du projet Mapping concernant les violations les
plus graves des droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire commises entre mars 1993 et juin 2003
sur le territoire de la République démocratique du
Congo, publié en 2010 par le Haut-Commissariat des
Nations Unies aux droits de l’homme
RDC République démocratique du Congo
SNEL Société nationale d’électricité
UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Program (programme de l’Université
d’Uppsala sur les données relatives aux conflits)
UPC Union des patriotes congolais
UPDF Uganda Peoples’ Defence Forces (forces de défense du
peuple ougandais)
armed activities (judgment) 16
7
Mapping Report Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most
serious violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law committed within the territory of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993
and June 2003, published in 2010 by the Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
MLC Mouvement de libération du Congo (Congo Liberation
Movement)
MONUC Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en République
démocratique du Congo (United Nations Organization
Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo)
Porter Commission
Report
Final Report of the Judicial Commission of Inquiry into
Allegations into Illegal Exploitation of Natural
Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the Democratic
Republic of Congo 2001 (November 2002)
SNEL Société nationale d’électricité (National Electricity Company)
UBOS Ugandan Bureau of Statistics
UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Program
UNCC United Nations Compensation Commission
UNPE United Nations Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation
of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth
of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
UPC Union des patriotes congolais (Union of Congolese
Patriots)
UPDF Uganda Peoples’ Defence Forces
2005 Judgment Judgment of the Court on the merits in the case concerning
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic
Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (I.C.J. Reports
2005, p. 168)
17
8
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
ANNÉE 2022
9 février 2022
ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES
SUR LE TERRITOIRE DU CONGO
(RÉPUBLIQUE DÉMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. OUGANDA)
RÉPARATIONS
Détermination du montant de la réparation par la Cour, les Parties n’étant pas
parvenues à s’entendre sur le règlement de cette question — Arrêt de 2005 et éléments
sur lesquels celui-
ci était fondé.
*
Contexte.
Affaire portant sur l’un des conflits armés les plus complexes et les plus meurtriers
du continent africain — Nombreux acteurs impliqués dans le conflit, dont
les forces armées de différents Etats et des forces armées irrégulières — Violation
de principes et règles fondamentaux du droit international — Difficulté de retrouver
le cours des événements en raison des effets du passage du temps.
* *
Principes et règles applicables à l’évaluation des réparations.
Article 31 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de l’Etat — Statut de l’Ituri
en tant que territoire occupé et devoir de vigilance de l’Ouganda — Responsabilité
incombant à l’Ouganda d’établir que tel ou tel préjudice subi en Ituri n’a pas été
causé par un manquement de sa part à ses obligations de puissance occupante —
Aucune réparation à raison des dommages causés par des groupes rebelles en dehors
de l’Ituri, ces derniers n’étant pas sous le contrôle de l’Ouganda — Réparation à
raison des dommages causés par le soutien illicite de l’Ouganda à des groupes armés.
*
Lien de causalité.
Nécessité d’un lien suffisamment direct et certain — Lien pouvant varier en fonc-
2022
9 février
Rôle général
no 116
17
8
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
YEAR 2022
9 February 2022
ARMED ACTIVITIES
ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO
(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. UGANDA)
REPARATIONS
Determination of the amount of reparation by the Court following failure by the
Parties to settle this question by agreement — 2005 Judgment and elements on
which it was based.
*
Context.
Case concerning one of the most complex and deadliest armed conflicts on the
African continent — Numerous actors involved in conflict, including armed forces
of various States and irregular forces — Violation of fundamental principles and
rules of international law — Difficulty of establishing the course of events due to
the passage of time.
* *
Principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations.
Article 31 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility — Status of Ituri as an
occupied territory and duty of vigilance of Uganda — For Uganda to establish that
a particular injury in Ituri was not caused by failure to meet its obligations as an
occupying Power — No reparation for damage caused by rebel groups outside
Ituri since they were not under Uganda’s control — Reparation for damage caused
by Uganda’s unlawful support of armed groups.
*
Causal nexus.
Must be sufficiently direct and certain — May vary depending on the primary
2022
9 February
General List
No. 116
18 activités armées (arrêt)
9
tion de la règle primaire violée, ainsi que de la nature et de l’ampleur du préjudice
— Difficultés de l’établissement d’un lien de causalité dans le cas des dommages
de guerre ou en présence de plusieurs acteurs — Importance de la distinction
entre l’Ituri et d’autres parties du territoire lors de l’analyse du lien de causalité.
*
Nature, forme et montant de l’indemnisation.
Obligation de réparer intégralement — Nature compensatoire de la réparation
— Réparation devant bénéficier à tous ceux qui ont souffert de préjudices —
Absence d’éléments de preuve suffisants quant à l’étendue des dommages matériels
n’excluant pas dans tous les cas l’octroi d’une indemnisation — Cour pouvant, à
titre exceptionnel, octroyer une indemnisation sous la forme d’une somme globale
lorsque les éléments de preuve permettent indubitablement de conclure qu’un fait
internationalement illicite a causé un préjudice avéré mais qu’ils ne permettent pas
une évaluation précise de l’étendue ou de l’ampleur de ce préjudice — Critères d’établissement
de la preuve moins rigoureux adoptés par des organes judiciaires ou
autres dans le cadre de procédures mettant en jeu un large groupe de victimes ayant
subi de graves préjudices dans des situations de conflit armé et, dans ce contexte,
réduction des montants des indemnités accordées de manière à tenir compte de l’application
d’un critère moins strict d’établissement de la preuve — Question de savoir
s’il convient de prendre en compte le fardeau financier imposé à l’Etat responsable.
*
Preuve.
Cour pouvant parvenir à une estimation de l’étendue des dommages en l’absence
d’informations spécifiques sur chaque victime ou bâtiment touchés.
Charge de la preuve — Partie alléguant un fait supportant en règle générale la
charge de la preuve — Règle devant être appliquée avec souplesse dans les situations
où le défendeur pourrait être mieux à même d’établir certains faits — Charge
de la preuve dépendant de l’objet et de la nature du différend — Responsabilité de
la Cour d’apprécier l’ensemble des éléments de preuve produits par les Parties —
En Ituri occupée, responsabilité incombant à l’Ouganda d’établir que tel ou tel
préjudice n’a pas été causé par son manquement à ses obligations de puissance
occupante — Dans d’autres régions, charge de la preuve incombant en règle générale
au plaideur cherchant à établir un fait.
Standard de la preuve — Standard pouvant varier au cas par cas et en fonction
de la gravité des actes allégués — Poids qu’il convient d’accorder à certains éléments
de preuve — Pratique d’organismes internationaux qui se sont penchés sur
la réparation à raison de violations de masse dans le cadre d’un conflit armé —
Niveau exigé de la preuve plus élevé au stade du fond qu’au stade de la réparation
— Eléments de preuve versés au dossier souvent insuffisants pour permettre de
déterminer les montants de l’indemnisation due avec précision — Cour devant
prendre en compte les rapports d’enquête, notamment ceux émanant des organes
des Nations Unies — Rapport de la commission Porter — Rapport Mapping —
Rapports des experts désignés par la Cour.
*
Types de dommages objets de la réparation.
Arrêt de 2005 déterminant l’obligation pour l’Ouganda de réparer — Tâche de
armed activities (judgment) 18
9
rule violated and nature and extent of the injury — Difficulties of establishing
causal nexus in case of damage resulting from war and in case of concurrent causes
or multiple actors — Importance of distinguishing between Ituri and other areas
when analysing causal nexus.
*
Nature, form and amount of reparation.
Obligation to make full reparation — Compensatory nature of reparation —
Intended to benefit all those who suffered injury — Absence of adequate evidence
of extent of material damage does not necessarily preclude award of compensation
— Court may, on an exceptional basis, award compensation in the form of a
global sum where the evidence leaves no doubt that an internationally wrongful act
has caused a substantial injury, but does not allow a precise evaluation of the
extent or scale of such injury — Less rigorous standards of proof adopted by judicial
or other bodies in proceedings with large numbers of victims who have suffered
serious injury in situations of armed conflict and, in this context, levels of compensation
reduced in order to account for lower standard of proof — Question whether
account should be taken of financial burden imposed on responsible State.
*
Questions of proof.
Court may form an appreciation of extent of damage without specific information
about each victim or property affected.
Burden of proof — Party alleging a fact generally bears burden of proof —
Rule must be applied flexibly in situations where respondent may be in better position
to establish certain facts — Burden of proof varies depending on subject-matter
and nature of dispute — It is for the Court to evaluate all evidence produced
by the Parties — In occupied Ituri, it is for Uganda to establish that a given injury
was not caused by its failure to meet its obligations as occupying Power — In
other areas, litigant seeking to establish a fact generally bears burden of proof.
Standard of proof — May vary from case to case and may depend on gravity of
acts alleged — Question of weight to be given to different kinds of evidence —
Practice of international bodies that have addressed reparation for mass violations
in context of armed conflict — Standard of proof at merits phase higher than
at phase on reparation — Evidence in case file often insufficient to reach precise
determination of amount of compensation due — Court must take account
of investigative reports, in particular those from United Nations organs — Porter
Commission Report — Mapping Report — Reports by Court-appointed
experts.
*
Forms of damage subject to reparation.
2005 Judgment determined Uganda’s obligation to repair — Court’s task at
19 activités armées (arrêt)
10
la Cour, au stade actuel de la procédure, consistant à se prononcer sur la nature et
le montant des réparations dues — Demandes de réparation devant entrer dans le
champ des conclusions antérieures de la Cour en matière de responsabilité.
* *
Indemnisation demandée par la RDC.
Dommages aux personnes.
Pertes en vies humaines — Cour concluant, sur la base des éléments de preuve
examinés, que ni les documents présentés par la RDC, ni les rapports soumis par les
experts désignés par la Cour ou élaborés par des organismes de l’ONU n’apportent
d’éléments suffisants pour déterminer de manière précise ou même approximative le
nombre de morts de civils à raison desquelles l’Ouganda doit réparation — Eléments
versés au dossier incitant à penser que le nombre de morts à raison desquelles
l’Ouganda doit réparation se situe entre 10 000 et 15 000 environ — Evaluation —
Cour adjugeant une indemnisation pour les morts de civils dans le cadre d’une
somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages causés aux personnes.
Atteintes aux personnes — Eléments de preuve ne permettant pas à la Cour de
parvenir à une estimation approximative du nombre de civils blessés — Eléments
de preuve disponibles confirmant qu’un nombre considérable d’atteintes se sont
produites dans de nombreuses localités — Evaluation — Cour adjugeant une
indemnisation pour les atteintes aux personnes dans le cadre d’une somme globale
allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages causés aux personnes.
Viols et violences sexuelles — Violences sexuelles souvent passées sous silence
et difficiles à prouver — Impossibilité de déduire des éléments de preuve disponibles
une estimation, même générale, du nombre de victimes — Viols et autres
formes de violence sexuelle perpétrés à grande échelle et de manière généralisée —
Evaluation — Cour adjugeant une indemnisation pour les viols et violences
sexuelles dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages
causés aux personnes.
Recrutement et déploiement d’enfants-soldats
— Eléments de preuve limités au
soutien des allégations de la RDC concernant le nombre d’enfants-soldats

Diverses indications confirmant qu’un grand nombre d’enfants ont été recrutés ou
déployés comme enfants-soldats
en Ituri — Demande non limitée à l’Ituri — Evaluation
— Cour adjugeant une indemnisation pour le recrutement et le déploiement
d’enfants-soldats
dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des
dommages causés aux personnes.
Déplacements de population — Eléments de preuve présentés ne permettant pas
d’établir avec une certitude suffisante un nombre de personnes déplacées pour lesquelles
une indemnisation distincte pourrait être adjugée — Ouganda devant réparation
à raison du nombre important de personnes déplacées — Déplacements dans la
seule région de l’Ituri semblant avoir concerné 100 000 à 500 000 personnes — Evaluation
— Cour adjugeant une indemnisation pour les déplacements de population
dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages causés aux
personnes.
Somme globale unique de 225 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis adjugée au titre
des pertes en vies humaines et autres dommages causés aux personnes.
*
Dommages aux biens.
Ituri — Eléments de preuve ne permettant pas de déterminer, fût-ce approxima-
armed activities (judgment) 19
10
present stage is to rule on nature and amount of reparation owed — Claims for
reparation must fall within scope of prior findings on liability.
* *
Compensation claimed by the DRC.
Damage to persons.
Loss of life — On the basis of evidence reviewed, Court’s conclusion that neither
the materials presented by the DRC, nor the reports provided by the Court‑appointed
experts or prepared by United Nations bodies are sufficient to determine a precise
or even approximate number of civilian deaths for which Uganda owes reparation
— Evidence presented to Court suggests number of deaths attributable to
Uganda falls in range of 10,000 to 15,000 persons — Valuation — Court will
award compensation for loss of civilian lives as part of global sum for all damage
to persons.
Injuries to persons — On the basis of evidence, Court is unable to determine an
approximate estimate of number of civilians injured — Available evidence confirms
occurrence of significant number of injuries in many localities — Valuation —
Court will award compensation for personal injuries as part of global sum for all
damage to persons.
Rape and sexual violence — Sexual violence is frequently underreported and
difficult to document — Impossible to derive even broad estimate of number of
victims from the available evidence — Rape and other forms of sexual violence
committed on large and widespread scale — Valuation — Court will award compensation
for rape and sexual violence as part of global sum for all damage to
persons.
Recruitment and deployment of child soldiers — Limited evidence supporting
DRC’s claims regarding number of child soldiers — Various indications confirm
that a significant number of children were recruited or deployed as child soldiers in
Ituri — Claim not limited to Ituri — Valuation — Court will award compensation
for recruitment and deployment of child soldiers as part of global sum for all damage
to persons.
Displacement of populations — Evidence presented does not establish a sufficiently
certain number of displaced persons for whom compensation could be
awarded separately —Uganda owes reparations in relation to significant number
of displaced persons — Displacements in Ituri alone appear to have been in range
of 100,000 to 500,000 persons — Valuation — Court will award compensation for
displacement of populations as part of global sum for all damage to persons.
Global sum of US$225,000,000 awarded for loss of life and other damage to
persons.
*
Damage to property.
Ituri — Evidence presented does not permit even to approximate extent of dam-
20 activités armées (arrêt)
11
tivement, l’ampleur des dommages — Rapport de l’expert désigné par la Cour ne
fournissant pas les données supplémentaires requises à cet égard — Rapport
Mapping
et autres rapports de l’ONU apportant des preuves convaincantes des
pillages commis à grande échelle en Ituri — Evaluation.
Hors Ituri — Insuffisance des éléments de preuve concernant les dommages aux
biens spécifiquement causés par l’Ouganda — Eléments de preuve ne permettant pas
de déterminer, fût‑ce approximativement, l’ampleur des dommages — Rapport de
l’expert désigné par la Cour ne fournissant pas les données supplémentaires requises
à cet égard — Evaluation — Prise en compte des éléments de preuve disponibles
pour parvenir à la somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages aux biens.
Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL) — Compte tenu du lien étroit du gouvernement
avec la SNEL, l’on aurait pu s’attendre à ce que la RDC produisît des
preuves étayant sa demande — RDC n’ayant pas satisfait à la charge de la preuve
lui incombant s’agissant de sa réclamation relative aux dommages subis par la
SNEL.
Biens des forces armées — Les forces armées congolaises relevant de l’autorité
directe du gouvernement, l’on aurait pu s’attendre à ce que la RDC justifiât pleinement
ses demandes — Demande rejetée pour défaut de preuve.
Somme globale de 40 000 000 dollars des Etats-Unis adjugée pour les dommages
aux biens.
*
Dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles.
En dehors de l’Ituri, Ouganda tenu à réparation à raison des dommages afférents
aux ressources naturelles dans les cas où des membres des UPDF ont été
impliqués — En Ituri, Ouganda tenu à réparation à raison de tous les actes de
pillage ou d’exploitation de ressources naturelles — Approche méthodologique de
l’expert désigné par la Cour emportant la conviction — Valeur extraite par des
civils associée aux ressources naturelles en Ituri.
Minerais — Ouganda responsable des dommages résultant du pillage et de l’exploitation
de l’or, des diamants et du coltan — Approche méthodologique de l’expert
désigné par la Cour emportant dans l’ensemble la conviction — Cour adjugeant une
indemnisation en ce qui concerne l’or, les diamants et le coltan dans le cadre d’une
somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles
— Les éléments de preuve relatifs à l’étain et au tungstène étant limités, nonprise
en compte de ces deux minerais pour déterminer l’indemnisation.
Flore — Mandat confié à l’expert permettant d’inclure le café dans son rapport
— Ouganda tenu à réparation à raison du pillage et de l’exploitation du bois
d’oeuvre — Calculs de l’expert s’appuyant sur des informations moins précises que
celles relatives à l’or — Montant de l’indemnité inférieur à l’estimation de l’expert
— Cour adjugeant une indemnisation en ce qui concerne le café et le bois
d’oeuvre dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages
afférents aux ressources naturelles — RDC n’ayant pas fourni à la Cour la
moindre base lui permettant d’évaluer les dommages causés à l’environnement du
fait de la déforestation — Demande formulée à raison des dommages résultant de
la déforestation rejetée pour défaut de preuve.
Faune — Ouganda tenu à réparation à raison des dommages survenus dans une
partie de la réserve de faune à okapis et du parc national des Virunga en Ituri, où
il était une puissance occupante — Cour tenant compte des dommages à la faune
dans la somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages afférents aux ressources
naturelles.
armed activities (judgment) 20
11
age — Report of Court-appointed
expert does not provide any relevant additional
information — Mapping Report and other United Nations reports establish convincing
record of large-scale pillaging in Ituri — Valuation.
Outside Ituri — Insufficient evidence regarding which damage to property was
caused by Uganda — Evidence presented does not permit even to approximate
extent of damage — Report of Court-appointed
expert does not provide any relevant
additional information — Valuation — Account taken of available evidence in
arriving at global sum for all damage to property.
Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL) — Given Government’s close relationship
with SNEL, DRC could have been expected to provide evidence substantiating
its claim — DRC has not discharged its burden of proof regarding claim for damage
to SNEL.
Military property — Given direct authority of Government over its armed
forces, DRC can be expected to substantiate its claims more fully — Claim dismissed
for lack of evidence.
Global sum of US$40,000,000 awarded for damage to property.
*
Damage related to natural resources.
Outside Ituri, Uganda owes reparation for damage related to natural resources
where UPDF involved — In Ituri, Uganda owes reparation for all acts of looting,
plundering or exploitation of natural resources — Methodological approach of
Court-appointed
expert is convincing — Value extracted by civilians from natural
resources in Ituri.
Minerals — Uganda responsible for damage resulting from looting, plundering
and exploitation of gold, diamonds and coltan — Methodological approach taken
by the Court-appointed
expert is convincing overall — Court to award compensation
for gold, diamonds and coltan as part of global sum for damage to natural
resources — Given limited evidence relating to tin and tungsten, these two minerals
not taken into account in determining compensation.
Flora — Inclusion of coffee in expert report permissible — Uganda owes reparation
for looting, plundering and exploitation of timber — Expert calculations
based on rougher estimates than with gold — Amount of compensation at level
lower than expert’s estimate — Court to award compensation for coffee and
timber as part of global sum for damage to natural resources — DRC did not
provide Court any basis for assessing damage to environment through deforestation
— Claim for damage resulting from deforestation dismissed for lack of evidence.
Fauna — Uganda liable to make reparation for damage in part of Okapi Wildlife
Reserve and Virunga National Park in Ituri, where it was occupying Power —
Court to take damage to fauna into account when awarding global sum for damage
to natural resources.
21 activités armées (arrêt)
12
Somme globale de 60 000 000 dollars des Etats-Unis adjugée pour les dommages
afférents aux ressources naturelles.
*
Dommage macroéconomique.
RDC n’ayant pas établi qu’il existait un lien de causalité suffisamment direct et
certain entre le comportement de l’Ouganda et le dommage macroéconomique allégué
— RDC n’ayant pas fourni de base permettant d’estimer, fût-ce approximativement,
le dommage macroéconomique éventuellement subi — Demande rejetée.
* *
Satisfaction.
Demande concernant la conduite d’enquêtes ou l’engagement de poursuites
pénales — Nul besoin pour la Cour d’édicter de mesure spécifique additionnelle de
satisfaction — Demande tendant à obtenir le versement d’une somme destinée à la
création d’un fonds de réconciliation entre les Hema et les Lendu en Ituri — Dommages
matériels causés par les conflits ethniques en Ituri déjà visés par l’indemnisation
accordée pour les dommages causés aux personnes et aux biens — Demande tendant
à obtenir le versement d’une somme au titre du dommage immatériel — Absence de
fondement de la demande relative au dommage immatériel, celui-
ci étant déjà inclus
dans la somme globale allouée par la Cour pour différents types de dommages.
* *
Autres demandes.
Absence de raison suffisante qui justifierait de déroger à la règle générale énoncée
à l’article 64 du Statut — Octroi d’intérêts compensatoires non justifié — Intérêts
moratoires au taux de 6 % devant courir sur toute somme due et non acquittée
— Aucune raison justifiant que la Cour reste saisie de l’affaire.
* *
Montant des indemnités octroyées s’élevant à un total de 325 000 000 dollars
des Etats‑Unis — Somme devant être acquittée par versements annuels de
65 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis — Cour convaincue que les indemnités accordées
et les modalités de leur versement sont compatibles avec la capacité de paiement
de l’Ouganda et n’ayant donc pas à examiner la question de savoir s’il
convient de prendre en compte le fardeau financier imposé à l’Etat responsable.
ARRÊT
Présents : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
;
MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde,
MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ;
M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ; M. Gautier, greffier.
En l’affaire des activités armées sur le territoire du Congo,
entre
armed activities (judgment) 21
12
Global sum of US$60,000,000 awarded for damage to natural resources.
*
Macroeconomic damage.
DRC has not demonstrated sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between
the conduct of Uganda and alleged macroeconomic damage — DRC has not provided
a basis for arriving at even rough estimate of possible macroeconomic damage
— Claim rejected.
* *
Satisfaction.
Request relating to conduct of criminal investigations or prosecutions — No
need for the Court to order any additional specific measure of satisfaction —
Request to order payment for creation of fund to promote reconciliation between
Hema and Lendu in Ituri — Material damage caused by ethnic conflicts in Ituri
already covered by compensation awarded for damage to persons and property —
Request to order payment for non-material
harm — No basis for such request as
non‑material harm is already included in the claims for compensation for different
forms of damage.
* *
Other requests.
No sufficient reason that would justify departing from the general rule in Article
64 of the Statute — No need to award pre-judgment
interest — Post-judgment
interest of 6 per cent will accrue on any overdue amount — No reason for the
Court to remain seised of the case.
* *
Total sum of US$325,000,000 awarded — Sum to be paid in five annual instalments
of US$65,000,000 — Court satisfied that total sum and terms of payment
remain within capacity of Uganda to pay; therefore no need to consider the question
whether account should be taken of financial burden imposed on responsible
State.
JUDGMENT
Present: President Donoghue; Vice‑President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Abraham,
Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa,
Nolte; Judge ad hoc Daudet; Registrar Gautier.
In the case concerning armed activities on the territory of the Congo,
between
22 activités armées (arrêt)
13
la République démocratique du Congo,
représentée par
S. Exc. M. Bernard Takaishe Ngumbi, vice‑premier ministre, ministre de la
justice et garde des sceaux a.i.,
comme chef de la délégation ;
S. Exc. M. Paul‑Crispin Kakhozi, ambassadeur de la République démocratique
du Congo auprès du Royaume de Belgique, du Royaume des
Pays‑Bas, du Grand‑Duché de Luxembourg et de l’Union européenne,
comme agent ;
M. Ivon Mingashang, avocat aux barreaux de Bruxelles et de Kinshasa/
Gombe, professeur et chef du département de droit international public
et relations internationales à la faculté de droit de l’Université de
Kinshasa,
comme coagent et avocat‑conseil ;
Mme Monique Chemillier‑Gendreau, professeure émérite de droit public et de
sciences politiques à l’Université Paris Diderot,
M. Mathias Forteau, professeur de droit public à l’Université Paris Nanterre,
M. Pierre Bodeau‑Livinec, professeur de droit public à l’Université Paris
Nanterre,
Mme Muriel Ubéda‑Saillard, professeure de droit public à l’Université de Lille,
Mme Raphaëlle Nollez‑Goldbach, directrice des études « droit et administration
publique » à l’Ecole normale supérieure de Paris, chargée de recherche
au Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS),
M. Pierre Klein, professeur de droit international à l’Université libre de
Bruxelles,
M. Nicolas Angelet, avocat au barreau de Bruxelles et professeur de droit
international à l’Université libre de Bruxelles,
M. Olivier Corten, professeur de droit international à l’Université libre de
Bruxelles,
M. Auguste Mampuya Kanunk’a‑Tshiabo, professeur émérite de droit international
à l’Université de Kinshasa,
M. Jean‑Paul Segihobe Bigira, professeur de droit international à l’Université
de Kinshasa et avocat au barreau de Kinshasa/Gombe,
M. Philippe Sands, QC, professeur de droit international au University
College London et avocat, Matrix Chambers, Londres,
Mme Michelle Butler, avocate, Matrix Chambers, Londres,
comme conseils et avocats ;
M. Jacques Mbokani Bateghana, docteur en droit de l’Université catholique
de Louvain et professeur de droit international à l’Université de Goma,
M. Paul Clark, avocat, Garden Court Chambers, Londres,
comme conseils ;
M. François Habiyaremye Muhashy Kayagwe, professeur à l’Université de
Goma,
M. Justin Okana Nsiawi Lebun, professeur d’économie à l’Université de
Kinshasa,
M. Pierre Ebbe Monga, conseiller juridique au ministère des affaires étrangères
de la République démocratique du Congo,
armed activities (judgment) 22
13
the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Bernard Takaishe Ngumbi, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of
Justice, Keeper of the Seals a.i.,
as Head of Delegation;
H.E. Mr. Paul‑Crispin Kakhozi, Ambassador of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo to the Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the European Union,
as Agent;
Mr. Ivon Mingashang, member of the Brussels and Kinshasa/Gombe Bars,
Professor and Head of the Department of Public International Law and
International Relations at the Faculty of Law, University of Kinshasa,
as Co-Agent and Legal Counsel;
Ms Monique Chemillier‑Gendreau, Emeritus Professor of Public Law and
Political Science at the University Paris Diderot,
Mr. Mathias Forteau, Professor of Public Law at the University Paris Nanterre,
Mr. Pierre Bodeau‑Livinec, Professor of Public Law at the University Paris
Nanterre,
Ms Muriel Ubéda‑Saillard, Professor of Public Law at the University of Lille,
Ms Raphaëlle Nollez‑Goldbach, Director of Studies in Law and Public
Administration at the Ecole normale supérieure, Paris, in charge of research
at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS),
Mr. Pierre Klein, Professor of International Law at the Université libre de
Bruxelles,
Mr. Nicolas Angelet, member of the Brussels Bar and Professor of International
Law at the Université libre de Bruxelles,
Mr. Olivier Corten, Professor of International Law at the Université libre de
Bruxelles,
Mr. Auguste Mampuya Kanunk’a‑Tshiabo, Emeritus Professor of International
Law at the University of Kinshasa,
Mr. Jean‑Paul Segihobe Bigira, Professor of International Law at the University
of Kinshasa and member of the Kinshasa/Gombe Bar,
Mr. Philippe Sands, QC, Professor of International Law, University College
London, Barrister, Matrix Chambers, London,
Ms Michelle Butler, Barrister, Matrix Chambers, London,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Mr. Jacques Mbokani Bateghana, Doctor of Law of the Université catholique
de Louvain and Professor of International Law at the University of Goma,
Mr. Paul Clark, Barrister, Garden Court Chambers, London,
as Counsel;
Mr. François Habiyaremye Muhashy Kayagwe, Professor at the University
of Goma,
Mr. Justin Okana Nsiawi Lebun, Professor of Economics at the University of
Kinshasa,
Mr. Pierre Ebbe Monga, Legal Counsel at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
23 activités armées (arrêt)
14
Mme Nicole Ntumba Bwatshia, professeure de droit international à l’Université
de Kinshasa et conseillère principale du président de la République en
charge du collège juridique et administratif,
M. Andrew Maclay, directeur, Secretariat International, Londres,
comme conseillers ;
M. Sylvain Lumu Mbaya, doctorant en droit international à l’Université de
Bordeaux et à l’Université de Kinshasa, et avocat au barreau de Kinshasa/
Matete (Eureka Law Firm SCPA),
M. Jean‑Paul Mwanza Kambongo, assistant à l’Université de Kinshasa et
avocat au barreau de Kinshasa/Gombe (Eureka Law Firm SCPA),
M. Jean‑Jacques Tshiamala wa Tshiamala, avocat au barreau du Kongo central
(Eureka Law Firm SCPA) et assistant en droit international au Centre
de recherche en sciences humaines à Kinshasa,
Mme Blandine Merveille Mingashang, avocate au barreau de Kinshasa/Matete
(Eureka Law Firm SCPA) et assistante en droit international au Centre de
recherche en sciences humaines à Kinshasa,
M. Glodie Kinsemi Malambu, avocat au barreau du Kongo central et assistant
en droit international au Centre de recherche en sciences humaines à
Kinshasa,
Mme Espérance Mujinga Mutombo, avocate au barreau de Kinshasa/Matete
(Eureka Law Firm SCPA) et assistante en droit international au Centre de
recherche en sciences humaines à Kinshasa,
M. Trésor Lungungu Kidimba, doctorant en droit international et assistant à
l’Université de Kinshasa, avocat au barreau de Kinshasa/Gombe,
M. Amani Cirimwami Ezéchiel, Research Fellow au Max Planck Institute
Luxembourg for Procedural Law et doctorant à l’Université catholique de
Louvain et l’Université libre de Bruxelles,
M. Stefano D’Aloia, doctorant à l’Université libre de Bruxelles,
Mme Marta Duch Gimenéz, assistante à l’Université catholique de Louvain,
comme assistants,
et
la République de l’Ouganda,
représentée par
l’honorable William Byaruhanga, SC, Attorney General de la République de
l’Ouganda,
comme agent (jusqu’au 4 février 2022) ;
l’honorable Kiryowa Kiwanuka, Attorney General de la République de l’Ouganda,
comme agent (à partir du 4 février 2022) ;
S. Exc. Mme Mirjam Blaak Sow, ambassadrice de la République de l’Ouganda
auprès du Royaume de Belgique, du Royaume des Pays-Bas, du Grand-Duché
de Luxembourg et de l’Union européenne,
comme agente adjointe ;
M. Francis Atoke, Solicitor General,
M. Christopher Gashirabake, Solicitor General adjoint,
Mme Christine Kaahwa, directrice a.i. du service des procès civils,
armed activities (judgment) 23
14
Ms Nicole Ntumba Bwatshia, Professor of International Law at the University
of Kinshasa and Principal Adviser to the President of the Republic in
Legal and Administrative Matters,
Mr. Andrew Maclay, Managing Director, Secretariat International, London,
as Advisers;
Mr. Sylvain Lumu Mbaya, PhD student in international law at the University
of Bordeaux and the University of Kinshasa, and member of the Kinshasa/
Matete Bar (Eureka Law Firm SCPA),
Mr. Jean‑Paul Mwanza Kambongo, Lecturer at the University of Kinshasa
and member of the Kinshasa/Gombe Bar (Eureka Law Firm SCPA),
Mr. Jean‑Jacques Tshiamala wa Tshiamala, member of the Kongo Central
Bar (Eureka Law Firm SCPA) and Lecturer in International Law at the
Centre de recherche en sciences humaines in Kinshasa,
Ms Blandine Merveille Mingashang, member of the Kinshasa/Matete Bar
(Eureka Law Firm SCPA) and Lecturer in International Law at the Centre
de recherche en sciences humaines in Kinshasa,
Mr. Glodie Kinsemi Malambu, member of the Kongo Central Bar and Lecturer
in International Law at the Centre de recherche en sciences humaines
in Kinshasa,
Ms Espérance Mujinga Mutombo, member of the Kinshasa/Matete Bar
(Eureka Law Firm SCPA) and Lecturer in International Law at the Centre
de recherche en sciences humaines in Kinshasa,
Mr. Trésor Lungungu Kidimba, PhD student in international law and Lecturer
at the University of Kinshasa, member of the Kinshasa/Gombe Bar,
Mr. Amani Cirimwami Ezéchiel, Research Fellow at the Max Planck Institute
Luxembourg for Procedural Law and PhD student at the Université
catholique de Louvain and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel,
Mr. Stefano D’Aloia, PhD student at the Université libre de Bruxelles,
Ms Marta Duch Gimenéz, Lecturer at the Université catholique de Louvain,
as Assistants,
and
the Republic of Uganda,
represented by
The Honourable William Byaruhanga, SC, Attorney General of the Republic
of Uganda,
as Agent (until 4 February 2022);
The Honourable Kiryowa Kiwanuka, Attorney General of the Republic of
Uganda,
as Agent (from 4 February 2022);
H.E. Ms Mirjam Blaak Sow, Ambassador of the Republic of Uganda to the
Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Grand Duchy
of Luxembourg and the European Union,
as Deputy Agent;
Mr. Francis Atoke, Solicitor General,
Mr. Christopher Gashirabake, Deputy Solicitor General,
Ms Christine Kaahwa, acting Director Civil Litigation,
24 activités armées (arrêt)
15
M. John Bosco Rujagaata Suuza, chef du service des contrats et des négociations,
M. Jeffrey Ian Atwine, Principal State Attorney,
M. Richard Adrole, Principal State Attorney,
M. Fadhil Mawanda, Principal State Attorney,
M. Geoffrey Wangolo Madete, Senior State Attorney,
M. Alex Byaruhanga, Senior State Attorney,
comme conseils ;
M. Dapo Akande, professeur de droit international public, Université
d’Oxford, Essex Court Chambers, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du
pays de Galles,
M. Pierre d’Argent, professeur de droit international à l’Université catholique
de Louvain, membre de l’Institut de droit international, cabinet Foley
Hoag LLP, membre du barreau de Bruxelles,
M. Lawrence H. Martin, avocat au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des
barreaux de la Cour suprême des Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, du district de
Columbia et du Commonwealth du Massachusetts,
M. Sean Murphy, professeur de droit international titulaire de la chaire
Manatt/Ahn à la faculté de droit de l’Université George Washington,
membre du barreau de Virginie,
M. Yuri Parkhomenko, avocat au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre du barreau
du district de Columbia,
M. Alain Pellet, professeur émérite de l’Université Paris Nanterre, ancien président
de la Commission du droit international, membre de l’Institut de
droit international,
comme conseils et avocats ;
Mme Rebecca Gerome, avocate au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des barreaux
du district de Columbia et de New York,
M. Peter Tzeng, avocat au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des barreaux du
district de Columbia et de New York,
M. Benjamin Salas Kantor, avocat au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre du
barreau de la Cour suprême du Chili,
M. Ysam Soualhi, chercheur au Centre Jean Bodin de l’Université d’Angers,
comme conseils ;
S. Exc. M. Arthur Sewankambo Kafeero, directeur a.i. des affaires régionales
et internationales, ministère des affaires étrangères,
le colonel Timothy Nabaasa Kanyogonya, directeur du service juridique,
direction du renseignement militaire — forces de défense du peuple ougandais,
ministère de la défense,
comme conseillers,
La Cour,
ainsi composée,
après délibéré en chambre du conseil,
rend l’arrêt suivant :
1. Le 23 juin 1999, la République démocratique du Congo (ci‑après la
« RDC ») a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête introductive d’instance
contre la République de l’Ouganda (ci‑après l’« Ouganda ») au sujet d’un différend
relatif à « des actes d’agression armée perpétrés par l’Ouganda sur le terri-
armed activities (judgment) 24
15
Mr. John Bosco Rujagaata Suuza, Commissioner Contracts and Negotiations,
Mr. Jeffrey Ian Atwine, Principal State Attorney,
Mr. Richard Adrole, Principal State Attorney,
Mr. Fadhil Mawanda, Principal State Attorney,
Mr. Geoffrey Wangolo Madete, Senior State Attorney,
Mr. Alex Byaruhanga, Senior State Attorney,
as Counsel;
Mr. Dapo Akande, Professor of Public International Law, University of
Oxford, Essex Court Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales,
Mr. Pierre d’Argent, Professor of International Law at the Université
catholique de Louvain, member of the Institut de droit international, Foley
Hoag LLP, member of the Brussels Bar,
Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the
Bars of the United States Supreme Court, the District of Columbia and the
Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
Mr. Sean Murphy, Manatt/Ahn Professor of International Law, The George
Washington University Law School, member of the Bar of Virginia,
Mr. Yuri Parkhomenko, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the
Bar of the District of Columbia,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Emeritus Professor of the University Paris Nanterre, former
Chairman of the International Law Commission, member of the Institut de
droit international,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Ms Rebecca Gerome, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the
Bars of the District of Columbia and New York,
Mr. Peter Tzeng, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of
the District of Columbia and New York,
Mr. Benjamin Salas Kantor, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of
the Bar of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Chile,
Mr. Ysam Soualhi, Researcher, Centre Jean Bodin, University of Angers,
as Counsel;
H.E. Mr. Arthur Sewankambo Kafeero, acting Director, Regional and International
Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Colonel Timothy Nabaasa Kanyogonya, Director of Legal Affairs,
Chieftaincy
of Military Intelligence — Uganda Peoples’ Defence Forces,
Ministry of Defence,
as Advisers,
The Court,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 23 June 1999, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter the
“DRC”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings
against the Republic of Uganda (hereinafter “Uganda”) in respect of a dispute
concerning “acts of armed aggression perpetrated by Uganda on the territory of
25 activités armées (arrêt)
16
toire de la République démocratique du Congo en violation flagrante de la
Charte des Nations Unies et de la Charte de l’Organisation de l’unité africaine »
(les italiques sont dans l’original). La requête invoquait, pour fonder la compétence
de la Cour, les déclarations par lesquelles les deux Parties ont accepté la
juridiction obligatoire de celle‑ci au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut
de la Cour.
2. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité des Parties
à la date du dépôt de la requête, chacune d’elles s’est prévalue du droit que lui
confère l’article 31 du Statut de procéder à la désignation d’un juge ad hoc pour
siéger en l’affaire. La RDC a d’abord désigné M. Joe Verhoeven, qui a démissionné
le 15 mai 2019, et ensuite M. Yves Daudet. L’Ouganda a désigné
M. James L. Kateka. A la suite de l’élection à la Cour, avec effet à compter du
6 février 2012, de Mme Julia Sebutinde, de nationalité ougandaise, M. Kateka a
cessé de siéger en tant que juge ad hoc en l’affaire, conformément au paragraphe
6 de l’article 35 du Règlement de la Cour.
3. Par ordonnance du 21 octobre 1999, la Cour a fixé au 21 juillet 2000 et au
21 avril 2001, respectivement, les dates d’expiration des délais pour le dépôt du
mémoire de la RDC et du contre‑mémoire de l’Ouganda. Ces pièces ont été
déposées dans les délais ainsi prescrits.
4. Le contre‑mémoire de l’Ouganda comprenait des demandes reconventionnelles.
Par ordonnance du 29 novembre 2001, la Cour a estimé que deux des
trois demandes reconventionnelles présentées par l’Ouganda étaient recevables
comme telles et faisaient partie de l’instance au fond. Par la même ordonnance,
la Cour a prescrit la présentation d’une réplique de la RDC et d’une duplique de
l’Ouganda. Par ordonnance du 29 janvier 2003, elle a autorisé la présentation
par la RDC d’une pièce additionnelle portant exclusivement sur les demandes
reconventionnelles. Ces pièces ont été déposées dans les délais fixés par la Cour.
5. Des audiences publiques sur le fond de l’affaire ont été tenues du 11 au
29 avril 2005.
6. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu le 19 décembre 2005 (ci‑après l’« arrêt
de 2005 »), la Cour a conclu notamment, au sujet des demandes présentées par
la RDC,
« que la République de l’Ouganda, en se livrant à des actions militaires
à l’encontre de la République démocratique du Congo sur le territoire
de celle‑ci, en occupant l’Ituri et en soutenant activement, sur les plans
militaire, logistique, économique et financier, des forces irrégulières qui
opéraient sur le territoire congolais, a[vait] violé le principe du non‑recours
à la force dans les relations internationales et le principe de
non‑intervention
» (Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République
démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 280,
par. 345, point 1) du dispositif) ;
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
« que, par le comportement de ses forces armées, qui [avaie]nt commis des
meurtres et des actes de torture et autres formes de traitement inhumain à
l’encontre de la population civile congolaise, [avaie]nt détruit des villages et
des bâtiments civils, [avaie]nt manqué d’établir une distinction entre cibles
civiles et cibles militaires et de protéger la population civile lors d’affrontements
avec d’autres combattants, [avaie]nt entraîné des enfants‑soldats,
[avaie]nt incité au conflit ethnique et [avaie]nt manqué de prendre des
mesures visant à y mettre un terme, et pour n’avoir pas, en tant que puissance
occupante, pris de mesures visant à respecter et à faire respecter les
armed activities (judgment) 25
16
the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in flagrant violation of the
United Nations Charter and of the Charter of the Organization of African
Unity” (emphasis in the original). In order to found the jurisdiction of the
Court, the Application relied on the declarations made by the two Parties
accepting the Court’s compulsory jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 2, of
the Statute of the Court.
2. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of the
Parties at the time of the filing of the Application, each Party availed itself of its
right under Article 31 of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case.
The DRC first chose Mr. Joe Verhoeven, who resigned on 15 May 2019, and
then Mr. Yves Daudet. Uganda chose Mr. James L. Kateka. Following the election
to the Court, with effect from 6 February 2012, of Ms Julia Sebutinde, a
Ugandan national, Mr. Kateka ceased to sit as judge ad hoc in the case, in
accordance with Article 35, paragraph 6, of the Rules of Court.
3. By an Order of 21 October 1999, the Court fixed 21 July 2000 and 21 April
2001, respectively, as the time‑limits for the filing of the Memorial of the DRC
and the Counter‑Memorial of Uganda. Those pleadings were filed within the
time‑limits thus prescribed.
4. Uganda’s Counter‑Memorial included counter‑claims. By an Order of
29 November 2001, the Court found that two of the three counter-claims
submitted
by Uganda were admissible as such and formed part of the proceedings
on the merits. By the same Order, the Court directed the submission of a Reply
by the DRC and a Rejoinder by Uganda. By an Order of 29 January 2003, it
authorized the submission of an additional pleading by the DRC relating solely
to the counter‑claims. Those pleadings were filed within the time‑limits fixed by
the Court.
5. Public hearings were held on the merits of the case from 11 to 29 April
2005.
6. In its Judgment dated 19 December 2005 (hereinafter the “2005 Judgment”),
the Court found, inter alia, with respect to the claims brought by the
DRC, that
“the Republic of Uganda, by engaging in military activities against the
Democratic Republic of the Congo on the latter’s territory, by occupying
Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic, economic and financial
support to irregular forces having operated on the territory of the DRC,
violated the principle of non‑use of force in international relations and
the principle of non‑intervention” (Armed Activities on the Territory of
the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (1) of the operative part);
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
“the Republic of Uganda, by the conduct of its armed forces, which committed
acts of killing, torture and other forms of inhumane treatment of the
Congolese civilian population, destroyed villages and civilian buildings,
failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets and to protect the
civilian population in fighting with other combatants, trained child soldiers,
incited ethnic conflict and failed to take measures to put an end to such
conflict; as well as by its failure, as an occupying Power, to take measures
to respect and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian
law in Ituri district, violated its obligations under international
26 activités armées (arrêt)
17
droits de l’homme et le droit international humanitaire dans le district de
l’Ituri, la République de l’Ouganda a[vait] violé les obligations lui incombant
en vertu du droit international relatif aux droits de l’homme et du
droit international humanitaire » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 280, par. 345,
point 3) du dispositif) ; et
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
« que, par les actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles
congolaises commis par des membres des forces armées ougandaises sur le
territoire de la République démocratique du Congo, et par son manquement
aux obligations lui incombant, en tant que puissance occupante dans
le district de l’Ituri, d’empêcher les actes de pillage et d’exploitation des
ressources naturelles congolaises, la République de l’Ouganda a[vait] violé
les obligations qui [étaie]nt les siennes, en vertu du droit international,
envers la République démocratique du Congo » (ibid., p. 280‑281, par. 345,
point 4) du dispositif).
En ce qui concerne ces violations, la Cour a dit que l’Ouganda avait l’obligation,
envers la RDC, de réparer le préjudice causé (ibid., p. 281, par. 345,
point 5) du dispositif).
7. Au sujet des demandes reconventionnelles présentées par l’Ouganda, la
Cour a dit que,
« par le comportement de ses forces armées, qui [avaie]nt attaqué l’ambassade
de l’Ouganda à Kinshasa et soumis à de mauvais traitements des
diplomates et d’autres personnes dans les locaux de l’ambassade, ainsi que
des diplomates ougandais à l’aéroport international de Ndjili, et pour
n’avoir pas assuré à l’ambassade et aux diplomates ougandais une protection
efficace ni empêché la saisie d’archives et de biens ougandais dans les
locaux de l’ambassade de l’Ouganda, la République démocratique du
Congo a[vait] violé les obligations lui incombant, en vertu de la convention
de Vienne de 1961 sur les relations diplomatiques, envers la République de
l’Ouganda » (ibid., p. 282, par. 345, point 12) du dispositif).
En ce qui concerne ces violations, la Cour a dit que la RDC avait l’obligation,
envers l’Ouganda, de réparer le préjudice causé (ibid., point 13) du dispositif).
8. En outre, la Cour a décidé dans son arrêt de 2005 qu’elle réglerait la question
des réparations dues au cas où les Parties ne pourraient se mettre d’accord
à ce sujet (ibid., p. 281‑282, par. 345, points 6) et 14) du dispositif).
9. Par lettres du 26 janvier et du 3 juillet 2009, le greffier a demandé aux Parties
de fournir des informations concernant les négociations qu’elles tiendraient
aux fins de régler la question des réparations. Par lettres du 6 et du 18 juillet
2009, respectivement, la RDC et l’Ouganda ont communiqué des éléments d’information.
L’Ouganda évoquait en particulier un accord conclu entre les Parties
à Ngurdoto (Tanzanie) le 8 septembre 2007, qui établissait un cadre pour le
règlement amiable de la question des réparations.
10. Entre 2009 et 2015, les Parties ont continué d’informer la Cour de l’état
d’avancement de leurs négociations. Elles ont tenu plusieurs réunions, dont
quatre au niveau ministériel. Au terme de la quatrième et dernière réunion
ministérielle, qui a eu lieu à Pretoria (Afrique du Sud) du 17 au 19 mars 2015,
elles ont constaté leur désaccord quant aux principes et modalités devant
présider
à la détermination du montant de la réparation. Compte tenu de
l’absence
de consensus au niveau ministériel, la question a été renvoyée aux
armed activities (judgment) 26
17
human rights law and international humanitarian law” (I.C.J. Reports 2005,
p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part); and
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
“the Republic of Uganda, by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation
of Congolese natural resources committed by members of the Ugandan
armed forces in the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
by its failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri
district to prevent acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese
natural resources, violated obligations owed to the Democratic Republic of
the Congo under international law” (ibid., pp. 280‑281, para. 345, subpara.
(4) of the operative part).
With respect to these violations, the Court found that Uganda was under an
obligation to make reparation to the DRC for the injury caused (ibid., p. 281,
para. 345, subpara. (5) of the operative part).
7. In relation to the counter‑claims presented by Uganda, the Court found
that
“the Democratic Republic of the Congo, by the conduct of its armed forces,
which attacked the Ugandan Embassy in Kinshasa, maltreated Ugandan
diplomats and other individuals on the Embassy premises, maltreated
Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili International Airport, as well as by its failure
to provide the Ugandan Embassy and Ugandan diplomats with effective
protection and by its failure to prevent archives and Ugandan property from
being seized from the premises of the Ugandan Embassy, violated obligations
owed to the Republic of Uganda under the Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations of 1961” (ibid., p. 282, para. 345, subpara. (12) of the
operative part).
With respect to these violations, the Court found that the DRC was under an
obligation to make reparation to Uganda for the injury caused (ibid., subpara.
(13) of the operative part).
8. The Court further decided in its 2005 Judgment that, failing agreement
between the Parties, the question of reparations due would be settled by the
Court (ibid., pp. 281‑282, para. 345, subparas. (6) and (14) of the operative part).
9. By letters dated 26 January and 3 July 2009, the Registrar asked the Parties
to provide information concerning any negotiations they might be holding
for the purpose of settling the question of reparations. Information was received
from the DRC by a letter dated 6 July 2009 and from Uganda by a letter dated
18 July 2009. In particular, Uganda referred to an agreement concluded by the
Parties at Ngurdoto (Tanzania) on 8 September 2007, which established a
framework for an amicable settlement of the question of reparations.
10. Between 2009 and 2015, the Parties continued to keep the Court informed
about the status of their negotiations. They held various meetings, including
four at the ministerial level. At the end of the fourth and final ministerial meeting,
held in Pretoria, South Africa, from 17 to 19 March 2015, the Parties
acknowledged that they had been unable to agree on the principles and modalities
to be applied in order to determine the amount of reparation due. Given the
lack of consensus at the ministerial level, the matter was referred to the Heads
27 activités armées (arrêt)
18
chefs d’Etat pour de nouvelles orientations, conformément à l’esprit de l’accord
de Ngurdoto.
11. Le 13 mai 2015, la RDC a remis à la Cour un document, daté du 8 mai
2015 et intitulé « Requête en saisine à nouveau de la Cour internationale de
Justice », dans lequel son gouvernement exposait notamment ce qui suit :
« [F]orce a été de constater l’échec des négociations quant à l’indemnisation
de la République Démocratique du Congo par l’Ouganda, comme en
témoigne éloquemment le Communiqué Conjoint signé par les deux parties
à Pretoria, en Afrique du Sud, le 19 mars 2015 ; … il sied dès lors, conformément
au [paragraphe] 345, point 6), de l’arrêt du 19 décembre 2005, que
la Cour relance la procédure par elle suspendue dans cette cause, aux fins
de fixer le montant de l’indemnité due par l’Ouganda à la République
Démocratique du Congo, sur [la] base du dossier des pièces à conviction
déjà communiquées à la Partie ougandaise et à mettre à la disposition de la
Cour. »
12. Au cours d’une réunion que le président de la Cour a tenue avec les représentants
des Parties le 9 juin 2015, conformément à l’article 31 du Règlement, le
coagent de la RDC, après avoir rappelé l’historique des négociations menées par
les Parties aux fins de parvenir à un règlement amiable de la question des réparations,
a déclaré que, de l’avis de son gouvernement, lesdites négociations
avaient échoué et que c’est en raison de cet échec que la RDC avait décidé de
saisir à nouveau la Cour. A la même réunion, l’agent de l’Ouganda a indiqué
que, de l’avis de son gouvernement, les conditions d’un renvoi à la Cour de la
question des réparations n’étaient pas remplies et que la demande formulée par
la RDC dans la requête du 13 mai 2015 était en conséquence prématurée.
13. Au cours de la réunion du 9 juin 2015, le président a recueilli les vues des
Parties sur le délai dont elles auraient besoin pour l’élaboration des pièces de
procédure écrite sur la question des réparations, dans l’hypothèse où la Cour
déciderait d’autoriser la présentation de telles pièces. Le coagent de la RDC a
indiqué que son gouvernement était prêt à déposer son mémoire dans un délai
de trois mois et demi à quatre mois. L’agent de l’Ouganda, faisant état du caractère
extrêmement complexe des questions à trancher, a mentionné un délai de
18 mois, à compter du dépôt d’un mémoire par la RDC, pour la présentation
d’un contre‑mémoire par son gouvernement.
14. Par ordonnance du 1er juillet 2015, la Cour a décidé de reprendre la procédure
en l’affaire sur la question des réparations. Elle a fixé au 6 janvier 2016 la
date d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt, par la RDC, d’un mémoire portant sur
les réparations que celle‑ci estime lui être dues par l’Ouganda et pour le dépôt,
par l’Ouganda, d’un mémoire portant sur les réparations que celui‑ci estime lui
être dues par la RDC.
15. Par ordonnance du 10 décembre 2015, le président de la Cour, à la
demande de la RDC, a reporté au 28 avril 2016 la date d’expiration du délai
pour le dépôt, par les Parties, des mémoires portant sur les réparations. A la
suite d’une nouvelle demande de la RDC, la Cour a, par ordonnance du 11 avril
2016, reporté cette date au 28 septembre 2016. Les mémoires ont été déposés
dans le délai ainsi prorogé.
16. Par ordonnance du 6 décembre 2016, la Cour a fixé au 6 février 2018 la
date d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt, par chaque Partie, d’un contre‑mémoire
répondant aux demandes présentées par l’autre Partie dans son mémoire. Les
contre‑mémoires des Parties ont été déposés dans le délai ainsi fixé.
armed activities (judgment) 27
18
of State for further guidance, within the framework of the Ngurdoto Agreement.
11. On 13 May 2015, the DRC submitted to the Court a document dated
8 May 2015 and entitled “New Application to the International Court of
Justice”,
in which its Government stated in particular that
“the negotiations on the question of reparation owed to the Democratic
Republic of the Congo by Uganda must now be deemed to have failed, as
is made clear in the joint communiqué signed by both Parties in Pretoria,
South Africa, on 19 March 2015; it therefore behoves the Court, as provided
for in paragraph 345 (6) of the Judgment of 19 December 2005, to reopen
the proceedings that it suspended in the case, in order to determine the
amount of reparation owed by Uganda to the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, on the basis of the evidence already transmitted to Uganda and
which will be made available to the Court”.
12. At a meeting held by the President of the Court with the representatives
of the Parties on 9 June 2015, pursuant to Article 31 of the Rules, the Co‑Agent
of the DRC, after outlining the history of the negotiations held by the Parties
with a view to reaching an amicable settlement on the question of reparations,
stated that his Government was of the view that the said negotiations had failed
and that it was because of that failure that the DRC had decided to seise the
Court again. At the same meeting, the Agent of Uganda indicated that his Government
was of the view that the conditions for referring the question of reparations
to the Court had not been met and that the request made by the DRC in
the Application filed on 13 May 2015 was therefore premature.
13. During the meeting of 9 June 2015, the President ascertained the views of
the Parties on how much time they would need for the preparation of the written
pleadings on the question of reparations, should the Court decide to authorize
such pleadings. The Co‑Agent of the DRC stated that a time‑limit of three
and a half to four months would be sufficient for his Government to prepare its
Memorial. The Agent of Uganda, citing the highly complex nature of the questions
to be decided, mentioned a time‑limit of 18 months from the filing of the
DRC’s Memorial for the preparation of a Counter‑Memorial by his Government.
14. By an Order of 1 July 2015, the Court decided to resume the proceedings
in the case with respect to the question of reparations. It fixed 6 January 2016 as
the time‑limit for the filing of a Memorial by the DRC on the reparations which
it considers to be owed to it by Uganda, and for the filing of a Memorial by
Uganda on the reparations which it considers to be owed to it by the DRC.
15. By an Order of 10 December 2015, the President of the Court, at the
request of the DRC, extended to 28 April 2016 the time‑limit for the filing of the
Parties’ Memorials on the question of reparations. Following an additional
request from the DRC, by an Order of 11 April 2016, the Court extended that
time‑limit to 28 September 2016. The Memorials were filed within the time‑limit
thus extended.
16. By an Order of 6 December 2016, the Court fixed 6 February 2018 as the
time‑limit for the filing, by each Party, of a Counter‑Memorial responding to
the claims presented by the other Party in its Memorial. The Counter‑Memorials
of the Parties were filed within the time‑limit thus fixed.
28 activités armées (arrêt)
19
17. Par lettres du 11 juin 2018, le greffier a informé les Parties que la Cour,
conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 62 de son Règlement, souhaitait
obtenir de plus amples informations sur certains points particuliers. Une liste de
questions était jointe à la lettre du greffier et les Parties ont été invitées à communiquer
leurs réponses le 11 septembre 2018 au plus tard. Les Parties ont également
été informées que chacune d’elles aurait ensuite la possibilité, jusqu’au
11 octobre 2018, de présenter ses éventuelles observations sur les réponses de
l’autre Partie. Par la suite, ces délais ont été prorogés à la demande des Parties.
L’une et l’autre ont déposé leurs réponses le 1er novembre 2018. La RDC a toutefois
transmis des versions réorganisées de ses réponses les 12 et 20 novembre
2018, en raison de certains problèmes concernant les annexes soumises. Par
lettre du 24 novembre 2018, elle a précisé que le document déposé le 20 novembre
2018 constituait la « version finale » de ses réponses. Elle a ensuite présenté ses
observations sur les réponses de l’Ouganda le 4 janvier 2019, et celui-
ci a présenté
ses observations sur les réponses de la RDC le 7 janvier 2019.
18. Par lettres du 4 septembre 2018, les Parties ont été informées que les
audiences sur la question des réparations auraient lieu du 18 au 22 mars 2019.
Par lettre du 11 février 2019, la RDC a prié la Cour de reporter de quelque six
mois la tenue des audiences. Par lettre du 12 février 2019, l’Ouganda a indiqué
qu’il ne s’opposait ni ne consentait à cette demande et qu’à cet égard il s’en
remettait au jugement de la Cour. Par lettres du 27 février 2019, les Parties ont
été avisées que la Cour avait décidé de reporter l’ouverture des audiences au
18 novembre 2019.
19. Par lettre conjointe datée du 9 novembre 2019 et déposée au Greffe le
12 novembre 2019, les Parties ont sollicité un report de quatre mois des audiences
qui devaient débuter le 18 novembre 2019, « afin de permettre à [leurs] pays de
tenter de nouveau de résoudre amiablement la question des réparations par voie
d’accord bilatéral ». Par lettres du 12 novembre 2019, les Parties ont été informées
que la Cour avait décidé de reporter la date d’ouverture de la procédure
orale et qu’elle fixerait les nouvelles dates d’audiences en temps utile, compte
tenu de la demande formulée par les Parties ainsi que du calendrier de ses travaux
pour 2020.
20. Par lettres du 9 janvier 2020, le greffier a indiqué aux Parties que la Cour
leur saurait gré, qu’elles le fassent ensemble ou séparément, de la tenir informée
de l’état de leurs négociations. La Cour a par la suite reçu plusieurs communications
des Parties contenant de tels renseignements. Au vu de ces communications,
et compte tenu du fait que la période de négociation de quatre mois sollicitée
par les Parties s’était écoulée, celles‑ci ont été informées par lettres du
23 avril 2020 que la Cour entendait organiser les audiences en l’affaire au cours
du premier trimestre de l’année 2021.
21. Par lettres du 8 juillet 2020, le greffier a informé les Parties que, tout en
poursuivant l’examen de l’ensemble des chefs de dommages invoqués par le
demandeur et des moyens de défense présentés par le défendeur, la Cour estimait
qu’il y avait lieu de faire procéder à une expertise, conformément au paragraphe
1 de l’article 67 de son Règlement, s’agissant des trois chefs de dommages
ci‑après en ce qui concerne la période comprise entre le 6 août 1998 et le
2 juin 2003 : les pertes en vies humaines, la perte de ressources naturelles et les
dommages aux biens. Les Parties ont également été informées que la Cour avait
fixé au 29 juillet 2020 la date d’expiration du délai dans lequel elles pouvaient
exposer, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 67 de son Règlement, leur
position au sujet de cette éventuelle expertise, en particulier leurs vues sur l’objet
de celle‑ci, le nombre et le mode de désignation des experts et les formalités à
armed activities (judgment) 28
19
17. By letters dated 11 June 2018, the Registrar informed the Parties that,
pursuant to Article 62, paragraph 1, of its Rules, the Court wished to obtain
further information on certain issues it had identified. A list of questions was
attached to the Registrar’s letter and the Parties were asked to provide their
responses to those questions by 11 September 2018 at the latest. The Parties
were further informed that they would then each have until 11 October 2018 to
communicate any comments they might wish to make on the responses of the
other Party. Those time‑limits were subsequently extended at the request of the
Parties. Both Parties filed their responses on 1 November 2018. The DRC, however,
transmitted reorganized versions of its responses on 12 and 20 November
2018, in view of certain problems with the annexes that had been submitted. By
a letter dated 24 November 2018, the DRC indicated that the document filed on
20 November 2018 constituted the “final version” of its responses. The DRC
then submitted comments on Uganda’s responses on 4 January 2019, and
Uganda submitted comments on the DRC’s responses on 7 January 2019.
18. By letters dated 4 September 2018, the Parties were informed that the
hearings on the question of reparations would take place from 18 to 22 March
2019. By a letter dated 11 February 2019, the DRC asked the Court to postpone
the hearings by some six months. By a letter dated 12 February 2019, Uganda
indicated that it neither opposed nor consented to the DRC’s request, and that
it was content to commit the matter to the Court’s judgment. By letters dated
27 February 2019, the Parties were notified that the Court had decided to postpone
the opening of the hearings to 18 November 2019.
19. By a joint letter dated 9 November 2019 and filed in the Registry on
12 November 2019, the Parties requested that the hearings due to open on
18 November 2019 be postponed for a period of four months “in order to afford
[their] countries a further opportunity to attempt to amicably settle the question
of reparations by bilateral agreement”. By letters dated 12 November 2019, the
Parties were informed that the Court had decided to postpone the opening of
the oral proceedings and that it would determine, at the appropriate time, new
dates for the hearings, taking into account the Parties’ request and its own
schedule of work for 2020.
20. By letters dated 9 January 2020, the Registrar indicated to the Parties
that the Court would appreciate receiving information from either or both of
them on the status of their negotiations. The Court subsequently received several
communications from the Parties providing such information. Having
regard to those communications and taking into account the fact that the
four‑month period of negotiations requested by the Parties had lapsed, the Parties
were informed, by letters dated 23 April 2020, that the Court intended to
hold hearings in the case during the first trimester of 2021.
21. By letters dated 8 July 2020, the Registrar informed the Parties that,
while continuing to examine the full range of heads of damage claimed by the
Applicant and the defences invoked by the Respondent, the Court considered it
necessary to arrange for an expert opinion, pursuant to Article 67, paragraph 1,
of its Rules, with respect to the following three heads of damage for the period
between 6 August 1998 and 2 June 2003: loss of human life, loss of natural
resources and property damage. The Parties were also informed that the Court
had fixed 29 July 2020 as the time‑limit within which they could present, in
accordance with Article 67, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, their respective
positions regarding any such appointment, in particular their views on the subject
of the expert opinion, the number and mode of appointment of the experts
and the procedure to be followed. By the same letter, the Registrar indicated
29 activités armées (arrêt)
20
observer. Par la même lettre, le greffier a indiqué que toutes observations qu’une
Partie souhaiterait formuler sur la réponse de la Partie adverse devraient être
communiquées le 12 août 2020 au plus tard.
22. Par lettre du 15 juillet 2020, l’Ouganda a estimé que « les questions dont
la Cour est saisie ne sont pas de celles prévues » par les dispositions de l’article
50 du Statut de la Cour et du paragraphe 1 de l’article 67 de son Règlement
relatives à la désignation d’experts. Il s’est donc
« oppos[é] … fermement à la proposition tendant à ce qu’un ou plusieurs
experts soient désignés dans le but indiqué, au motif que cela reviendrait à
décharger la RDC de la responsabilité principale d’étayer sa demande (ou
tel ou tel chef de dommages) et d’attribuer cette responsabilité à des tiers,
au préjudice de l’Ouganda et en violation des principes pertinents du droit
international ».
23. Par lettre du 24 juillet 2020, la RDC a précisé qu’elle « accueill[ait] favorablement
la proposition par laquelle la Cour estim[ait] que[,] pour les trois chefs
de [dommages] évoqués [dans la lettre du greffier du 8 juillet 2020], il y a[vait] lieu
de recourir à une expertise ». Elle a ajouté que le recours à une expertise
était « sans préjudice du rôle judiciaire de la Cour » et que « c’[étai]t à la Cour
in fine, et non aux experts, de décider de l’indemnisation due par l’Ouganda à
la République Démocratique du Congo ». La RDC a également communiqué
ses vues sur les modalités relatives à la désignation des experts et émis l’avis que
les formalités à observer devraient correspondre à la pratique constante de la
Cour.
24. Par lettre du 12 août 2020, l’Ouganda a présenté ses observations sur les
vues de la RDC quant à l’expertise envisagée par la Cour en l’espèce, réaffirmant
ses objections à la désignation d’experts. Selon l’Ouganda,
« il n’existe aucun élément de preuve que les experts pourraient évaluer
ou
apprécier [; i]l ne reste à la Cour qu’à déterminer si les éléments soumis par
la RDC satisfont au critère requis en les examinant
elle‑même à l’aune des
principes applicables du droit international ».
25. Par ordonnance du 8 septembre 2020, la Cour, après avoir dûment pris
en compte les vues exprimées par les Parties, a décidé de faire procéder à une
expertise, conformément à l’article 67 de son Règlement, au sujet de certains
chefs de dommages avancés par le demandeur, à savoir les pertes en vies
humaines, la perte de ressources naturelles et les dommages aux biens. Dans
l’ordonnance, le mandat des experts était défini comme suit :
« I. Pertes en vies humaines
a) Au vu des éléments de preuve versés au dossier de l’affaire et des documents
publiquement accessibles, en particulier les rapports de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies mentionnés dans l’arrêt de 2005, quelle est
l’estimation globale des pertes civiles (ventilées selon les circonstances
du décès) dues au conflit armé sur le territoire de la République démocratique
du Congo pendant la période pertinente ?
b) D’après la pratique en vigueur en République démocratique du Congo
s’agissant des pertes en vies humaines pendant la période pertinente,
quel est le barème d’indemnisation applicable à la perte d’une vie
humaine ?
armed activities (judgment) 29
20
that any comments that either Party might wish to make on the response of the
other Party should be communicated by 12 August 2020 at the latest.
22. By a letter dated 15 July 2020, Uganda observed that “the questions
before the Court are not of the sort contemplated” under Article 50 of the Statute
of the Court and Article 67, paragraph 1, of the Rules relating to the
appointment of experts. Therefore, it
“strongly object[ed] to the proposal to appoint an expert or experts for the
stated purpose because it amounts to relieving the DRC of the primary
responsibility to prove her claim (or any particular heads of claim), and
assigning that responsibility to third parties, to the prejudice of Uganda and
in violation of the relevant principles of international law”.
23. By a letter dated 24 July 2020, the DRC stated that it was “favourably
disposed towards the Court’s proposal that, for the three heads of damage
referred to [in the Registrar’s letter of 8 July 2020], there should be recourse to
an expert opinion”. It added that recourse to an expert opinion was “without
prejudice to the judicial role of the Court” and that it was “ultimately for the
Court, and not the experts, to decide on the compensation owed by Uganda to
the Democratic Republic of the Congo”. The DRC also transmitted its views
on the mode of appointment of the experts and expressed the opinion that the
procedure
to be followed should correspond to the established practice of the
Court.
24. By a letter dated 12 August 2020, Uganda provided its comments on the
views expressed by the DRC regarding the expert opinion envisaged by the Court
in the case, reiterating its objections to the appointment of experts. It stated that
“there is no evidence for the experts to assess or opine on. What remains is
for the Court to make the determination as to whether the evidence submitted
by the DRC meets the required standard based on its own assessment
of the evidence vis‑à‑vis the applicable principles of international law”.
25. By an Order dated 8 September 2020, having duly taken into account the
views of the Parties, the Court decided to arrange for an expert opinion, pursuant
to Article 67 of its Rules, regarding certain heads of damage alleged by the
Applicant, namely, loss of human life, loss of natural resources and property
damage. The Order set out the following terms of reference for the experts:
“I. Loss of Human Life
(a) Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly
available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the
2005 Judgment, what is the global estimate of the lives lost among the
civilian population (broken down by manner of death) due to the armed
conflict on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in
the relevant period?
(b) What was, according to the prevailing practice in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in terms of loss of human life during the period
in question, the scale of compensation due for the loss of individual
human life?
30 activités armées (arrêt)
21
II. Perte de ressources naturelles
a) Au vu des éléments de preuve versés au dossier de l’affaire et des documents
publiquement accessibles, en particulier les rapports de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies mentionnés dans l’arrêt de 2005, quelle a été
la quantité approximative de ressources naturelles, telles que l’or, les
diamants, le coltan et le bois, exploitées illégalement durant l’occupation
du district de l’Ituri par les forces armées ougandaises pendant la période
pertinente ?
b) Sur la base de la réponse à la question précédente, quelle est la valeur
du préjudice subi par la République démocratique du Congo à raison
de l’exploitation illégale de ressources naturelles, telles que l’or, les diamants,
le coltan et le bois, durant l’occupation du district de l’Ituri par
les forces armées ougandaises ?
c) Au vu des éléments de preuve versés au dossier de l’affaire et des
documents
publiquement accessibles, en particulier les rapports de
l’Organisation
des Nations Unies mentionnés dans l’arrêt de 2005,
quelle a été la quantité approximative de ressources naturelles, telles
que l’or, les diamants, le coltan et le bois, pillées et exploitées par les
forces armées ougandaises en République démocratique du Congo,
exception faite du district de l’Ituri, et quelle valeur doit‑on leur attribuer
?
III. Dommages aux biens
a) Au vu des éléments de preuve versés au dossier de l’affaire et des documents
publiquement accessibles, en particulier les rapports de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies mentionnés dans l’arrêt de 2005, quel a été le
nombre approximatif et le type de biens endommagés ou détruits par
les forces armées ougandaises pendant la période pertinente dans le district
de l’Ituri et en juin 2000 à Kisangani ?
b) Quel est le coût approximatif de la reconstruction d’écoles, d’hôpitaux
et d’habitations individuelles tels que ceux qui ont été détruits dans le
district de l’Ituri et à Kisangani ? »
26. Par la même ordonnance, la Cour a décidé que cette expertise serait
« confiée à quatre experts indépendants qui, les Parties entendues, ser[aie]nt désignés
par ordonnance de la Cour ». Il était en outre précisé que, avant de prendre
leurs fonctions, lesdits experts feraient la déclaration suivante :
« Je déclare solennellement, en tout honneur et en toute conscience, que
je m’acquitterai de mes fonctions d’expert en tout honneur et dévouement,
en pleine et parfaite impartialité et en toute conscience, et que je m’abstiendrai
de divulguer ou d’utiliser en dehors de la Cour les documents ou renseignements
de caractère confidentiel dont je pourrais prendre connaissance
dans l’accomplissement de ma mission. »
27. Par lettres du 10 septembre 2020, le greffier a informé les Parties de la
décision de la Cour et du fait que celle‑ci proposait quatre experts potentiels aux
fins de mener l’expertise ainsi décidée, à savoir, par ordre alphabétique,
Mme Debarati Guha‑Sapir, M. Michael Nest, M. Geoffrey Senogles et
M. Henrik
Urdal, dont les curricula vitae ont été joints auxdites lettres. Le greffier
a invité les Parties à communiquer à la Cour, le 18 septembre 2020 au plus
armed activities (judgment) 30
21
II. Loss of Natural Resources
(a) Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly
available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the
2005 Judgment, what is the approximate quantity of natural resources,
such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber, unlawfully exploited during
the occupation by Ugandan armed forces of the district of Ituri in the
relevant period?
(b) Based on the answer to the question above, what is the valuation of the
damage suffered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the
unlawful exploitation of natural resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan
and timber, during the occupation by Ugandan armed forces of the
district of Ituri?
(c) Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly
available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the
2005 Judgment, what is the approximate quantity of natural resources,
such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber, plundered and exploited by
Ugandan armed forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
except for the district of Ituri, and what is the valuation of those
resources?
III. Property Damage
(a) Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly
available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the
2005 Judgment, what is the approximate number and type of properties
damaged or destroyed by Ugandan armed forces in the relevant period
in the district of Ituri and in June 2000 in Kisangani?
(b) What is the approximate cost of rebuilding the kind of schools, hospitals
and private dwellings destroyed in the district of Ituri and in Kisangani?”
26. By the same Order, the Court decided that the expert opinion would be
“entrusted to four independent experts appointed by Order of the Court after
hearing the Parties”. It was also noted that, before taking up their duties, the
experts would make the following declaration:
“I solemnly declare, upon my honour and conscience, that I will perform
my duties as expert honourably and faithfully, impartially and conscientiously,
and will refrain from divulging or using, outside the Court, any
documents or information of a confidential character which may come to
my knowledge in the course of the performance of my task.”
27. By letters dated 10 September 2020, the Registrar informed the Parties of
the Court’s decision and of the fact that the Court had identified four potential
experts to carry out the expert mission, namely, in alphabetical order,
Ms Debarati
Guha‑Sapir, Mr. Michael Nest, Mr. Geoffrey Senogles and
Mr. Henrik Urdal, whose curricula vitae were appended to those letters. The
Registrar invited the Parties to communicate to the Court any observations
31 activités armées (arrêt)
22
tard, toutes observations qu’elles souhaiteraient formuler au sujet du choix des
experts.
28. Par lettre du 17 septembre 2020, la RDC a indiqué ne pas avoir d’objection
au sujet des quatre experts proposés par la Cour.
29. Par lettre du 18 septembre 2020, l’Ouganda a notamment prié la Cour de
proroger le délai fixé pour la présentation de ses observations sur lesdits experts.
Le président de la Cour a décidé de proroger ce délai jusqu’au 25 septembre
2020.
30. Par lettre du 25 septembre 2020, l’Ouganda a présenté ses observations
sur les experts proposés par la Cour, indiquant qu’il s’opposait au choix de trois
d’entre eux pour différents motifs.
31. Par ordonnance du 12 octobre 2020, après avoir dûment examiné les vues
des Parties, la Cour a décidé de désigner les quatre experts suivants :
— Mme Debarati Guha‑Sapir, de nationalité belge, professeure en santé publique
à l’Université de Louvain (Belgique), directrice du centre de recherche
sur l’épidémiologie des désastres de Bruxelles (Belgique), membre de
l’Académie royale de médecine de Belgique ;
— M. Michael Nest, de nationalité australienne, conseiller en matière de politique
environnementale dans le cadre du programme de l’Union européenne
pour l’établissement des responsabilités, la primauté du droit et la lutte
contre
la corruption au Ghana ; ancien analyste des conflits liés aux minerais
dans le cadre de programmes de l’agence des Etats‑Unis pour le développement
international et de la Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit dans la région des Grands Lacs en Afrique ;
— M. Geoffrey Senogles, de nationalité britannique, associé au cabinet Senogles
& Co, comptables agréés, Nyon (Suisse) ; et
— M. Henrik Urdal, de nationalité norvégienne, professeur de recherche et
directeur du Peace Research Institute Oslo (Norvège).
Ces experts ont ensuite fait la déclaration solennelle prévue dans l’ordonnance
du 8 septembre 2020 (voir le paragraphe 26 ci-
dessus).
32. Par lettres du 1er décembre 2020, les Parties ont été informées que la Cour
avait fixé au 22 février 2021 la date d’ouverture des audiences sur la question des
réparations.
33. Par lettres du 21 décembre 2020, le greffier a fait tenir aux Parties copie
du rapport déposé par les experts désignés en l’affaire. Chacune d’elles s’est
vu accorder jusqu’au 21 janvier 2021 pour présenter toutes observations écrites
qu’elle souhaiterait faire sur ledit rapport.
34. Par lettres du 24 décembre 2020, le greffier a fait tenir aux Parties des
corrigenda,
reçus des experts désignés par la Cour, du rapport déposé par ceux‑ci.
35. Par lettre du 23 décembre 2020, l’Ouganda a sollicité le report, « à une
date postérieure au 17 mars 2021 », des audiences devant s’ouvrir le 22 février
2021. Par lettre du 7 janvier 2021, la RDC a indiqué que son gouvernement ne
s’opposait pas audit report. Compte tenu de la demande précitée et des vues
exprimées par la RDC sur cette question, la Cour a décidé de reporter au
20 avril 2021 la date d’ouverture des audiences en l’affaire.
36. Par lettre du 13 janvier 2021, l’Ouganda a sollicité le report au 14 février
2021 du délai, initialement fixé au 21 janvier 2021, dans lequel les Parties
devaient communiquer à la Cour toutes observations qu’elles souhaiteraient
faire sur le rapport des experts. Par lettre du 17 janvier 2021, la RDC a indiqué
« ne trouve[r] aucune raison qui justifierait le report de la date de soumission des
observations écrites » des Parties sur le rapport déposé par les experts. Par lettres
armed activities (judgment) 31
22
they might wish to make on the choice of experts by 18 September 2020 at the
latest.
28. By a letter dated 17 September 2020, the DRC indicated that it had no
objection to the four experts proposed by the Court.
29. By a letter dated 18 September 2020, Uganda asked the Court, inter alia,
to extend the time‑limit for its observations on the potential experts identified by
the Court. The President of the Court decided to extend that time‑limit to
25 September 2020.
30. By a letter dated 25 September 2020, Uganda presented its observations
on the experts proposed by the Court, stating that it objected to the selection of
three of them on various grounds.
31. By an Order dated 12 October 2020, having duly considered the views of
the Parties, the Court decided to appoint the following four experts:
— Ms Debarati Guha‑Sapir, of Belgian nationality, Professor of Public Health
at the University of Louvain (Belgium), Director of the Centre for Research
on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Brussels (Belgium), member of the Belgian
Royal Academy of Medicine;
— Mr. Michael Nest, of Australian nationality, Environmental Governance
Adviser for the European Union’s Accountability, Rule of Law and
Anti‑Corruption Programme in Ghana and former conflict minerals analyst
for United States Agency for International Development and Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit projects in the Great Lakes
Region of Africa;
— Mr. Geoffrey Senogles, of British nationality, Partner at Senogles & Co,
Chartered Accountants, Nyon (Switzerland); and
— Mr. Henrik Urdal, of Norwegian nationality, Research Professor and Director
of the Peace Research Institute Oslo (Norway).
The experts subsequently made the solemn declaration provided for in the
Order of 8 September 2020 (see paragraph 26 above).
32. By letters dated 1 December 2020, the Parties were informed that the
Court had fixed 22 February 2021 as the date for the opening of the hearings on
the question of reparations.
33. By letters dated 21 December 2020, the Registrar communicated to the
Parties copies of the report filed by the experts appointed in the case. Each Party
was given until 21 January 2021 to submit any written observations it might
wish to make on that report.
34. By letters dated 24 December 2020, the Registrar transmitted to the Parties
corrigenda received from the Court‑appointed experts to their report.
35. By a letter dated 23 December 2020, Uganda requested that the hearings
due to open on 22 February 2021 be postponed to “after 17 March 2021”. By a
letter dated 7 January 2021, the DRC indicated that its Government had no
objection to the postponement. Taking into account the above‑mentioned
request and the views expressed by the DRC on this question, the Court decided
to postpone to 20 April 2021 the opening of the hearings in the case.
36. By a letter dated 13 January 2021, Uganda requested that the time‑limit
for the submission to the Court of any observations the Parties might wish to
make on the experts’ report, originally fixed for 21 January 2021, be extended to
14 February 2021. By a letter dated 17 January 2021, the DRC indicated that it
“c[ould] see no justification for extending the time‑limit for the submission by
each Party of its written observations on the experts’ report”. By letters dated
32 activités armées (arrêt)
23
du 18 janvier 2021, le greffier a fait savoir aux Parties que, tenant compte du fait
que, avec l’assentiment des Parties, les audiences avaient été reportées au mois
d’avril 2021, le président de la Cour avait décidé de reporter au 15 février 2021
la date à laquelle les Parties pourraient soumettre leurs observations sur ledit
rapport.
37. Sous le couvert d’une lettre du 14 février 2021, le coagent de la RDC a
communiqué à la Cour les observations écrites de son gouvernement sur le rapport
des experts. L’Ouganda a communiqué ses observations écrites sur ledit
rapport le 15 février 2021. Les observations de chacune des Parties ont été communiquées
aux experts, qui y ont répondu par écrit le 1er mars 2021 ; leur réponse
a immédiatement été transmise aux Parties. Ces dernières ont été invitées à indiquer
au Greffe, le 15 mars 2021 au plus tard, si elles souhaitaient poser des questions
aux experts à l’audience.
38. Par lettre du 6 mars 2021, le coagent de la RDC a indiqué que son gouvernement
souhaitait poser des questions aux experts à l’audience.
39. Par lettre du 16 mars 2021, l’agent de l’Ouganda a indiqué que son gouvernement
se réservait le droit de poser des questions aux experts au cours des
audiences. Par lettre du 6 avril 2021, il a indiqué que son gouvernement souhaitait
poser des questions aux experts au cours des audiences.
40. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 de son Règlement, la
Cour, après s’être renseignée auprès des Parties, a décidé de rendre accessibles
au public, à l’ouverture de la procédure orale, des exemplaires des pièces de
procédure sur la question des réparations et des documents y annexés, des
réponses des Parties aux questions posées par la Cour et des observations y
relatives. Elle a par la suite décidé de rendre accessibles au public le rapport des
experts et les documents y relatifs.
41. Des audiences publiques sur la question des réparations ont été tenues du
20 au 30 avril 2021. La procédure orale a été menée sous forme hybride, conformément
au paragraphe 2 de l’article 59 du Règlement de la Cour et sur la base
des directives à l’intention des parties concernant l’organisation d’audiences par
liaison vidéo, adoptées le 13 juillet 2020 et communiquées aux Parties le
23 décembre 2020. Avant l’ouverture des audiences hybrides, les Parties ont été
invitées à prendre part à des essais techniques complets. Pendant la procédure
orale, plusieurs juges étaient présents dans la grande salle de justice tandis que
les autres y participaient par liaison vidéo, ce qui leur permettait de voir et d’entendre
l’intervenant ainsi que de voir toutes les pièces présentées. Chaque Partie
était autorisée à ce que quatre de ses représentants au maximum soient présents
en même temps dans la grande salle de justice, une salle supplémentaire du
Palais de la Paix étant en outre mise à sa disposition, où les membres de sa délégation
pouvaient prendre part aux audiences par liaison vidéo. Ces derniers
avaient également la possibilité d’y participer par liaison vidéo en tout autre lieu
de leur choix.
42. Au cours des audiences susmentionnées ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries
et réponses :
Pour la RDC : S. Exc. M. Paul‑Crispin Kakhozi,
Mme Monique Chemillier‑Gendreau,
Mme Muriel Ubéda‑Saillard,
Mme Raphaëlle Nollez‑Goldbach,
M. Jean‑Paul Segihobe Bigira,
M. Pierre Bodeau‑Livinec,
M. Nicolas Angelet,
armed activities (judgment) 32
23
18 January 2021, the Registrar informed the Parties that, in view of the fact
that, with the agreement of the Parties, the hearings had been postponed to
April 2021, the President of the Court had decided to extend to 15 February
2021 the time‑limit for the submission, by the Parties, of their observations on
the said report.
37. Under cover of a letter dated 14 February 2021, the Co‑Agent of the
DRC communicated to the Court his Government’s written observations on the
experts’ report. Uganda furnished its written observations on the said report on
15 February 2021. Each Party’s observations were communicated to the experts,
who responded to them in writing on 1 March 2021; their response was immediately
transmitted to the Parties. The latter were asked to indicate to the Registry,
by 15 March 2021 at the latest, whether they wished to put questions to the
experts at the hearings.
38. By a letter dated 6 March 2021, the Co‑Agent of the DRC indicated that
his Government wished to put questions to the experts at the hearings.
39. By a letter dated 16 March 2021, the Agent of Uganda stated that his
Government reserved the right to put questions to the experts at the hearings.
By a letter dated 6 April 2021, he indicated that his Government wished to put
questions to the experts during the hearings.
40. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascertaining
the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the written pleadings on
reparations and the documents annexed thereto, the responses of the Parties to
the questions put by the Court and the comments on those responses would be
made accessible to the public at the opening of the oral proceedings. It subsequently
decided to make the experts’ report and related documents accessible to
the public.
41. Public hearings on the question of reparations were held from 20 to
30 April 2021. The oral proceedings were conducted in a hybrid format, in
accordance with Article 59, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court and on the basis
of the Court’s Guidelines for the parties on the organization of hearings by
video link, adopted on 13 July 2020 and communicated to the Parties on
23 December 2020. Prior to the opening of the hybrid hearings, the Parties were
invited to participate in comprehensive technical tests. During the oral proceedings,
a number of judges were present in the Great Hall of Justice, while others
joined the proceedings via video link, allowing them to view and hear the
speaker and see any demonstrative exhibits displayed. Each Party was permitted
to have up to four representatives present in the Great Hall of Justice at any one
time and was offered the use of an additional room in the Peace Palace from
which members of the delegation were able to participate via video link. Members
of the delegations were also given the opportunity to participate via video
link from other locations of their choice.
42. During the above-mentioned
hearings, the Court heard the oral arguments
and replies of:
For the DRC: H.E. Mr. Paul‑Crispin Kakhozi,
Ms Monique Chemillier‑Gendreau,
Ms Muriel Ubéda‑Saillard,
Ms Raphaëlle Nollez‑Goldbach,
Mr. Jean‑Paul Segihobe Bigira,
Mr. Pierre Bodeau‑Livinec,
Mr. Nicolas Angelet,
33 activités armées (arrêt)
24
M. Auguste Mampuya Kanunk’a‑Tshiabo,
M. Ivon Mingashang,
M. Mathias Forteau,
M. Philippe Sands,
M. Olivier Corten.
Pour l’Ouganda : l’honorable William Byaruhanga,
M. Sean Murphy,
M. Pierre d’Argent,
M. Lawrence H. Martin,
M. Dapo Akande,
M. Yuri Parkhomenko,
M. Alain Pellet.
43. Les experts désignés en l’affaire (voir le paragraphe 31 ci‑dessus) ont été
entendus au cours de deux audiences publiques, conformément à l’article 65 du
Règlement de la Cour. Des questions ont été posées à chacun des experts par les
conseils des Parties. Des membres de la Cour ont posé des questions à M. Urdal
et à Mme Guha-Sapir.
44. A l’audience, un membre de la Cour a posé aux Parties une question, à
laquelle celles‑ci ont répondu oralement, conformément au paragraphe 4 de l’article
61 du Règlement de la Cour.
*
45. Dans les pièces de procédure sur la question des réparations, les conclusions
ci‑après ont été formulées par les Parties :
Au nom du Gouvernement de la RDC,
dans le mémoire :
« Pour les motifs qui précèdent et sous réserve d’une adaptation de ses
demandes en cours d’instance, la République démocratique du Congo
demande à la Cour de dire et juger que :
a) l’Ouganda est tenu de verser à la RDC la somme de 13 478 122 950
(treize milliards quatre cent soixante‑dix‑huit millions cent vingt‑deux
mille neuf cent cinquante) dollars des Etats‑Unis … au titre de l’indemnisation
des dommages résultant des violations du droit international
constatées par la Cour dans son arrêt du 19 décembre 2005 ;
b) des intérêts compensatoires seront dus sur ce montant à concurrence de
6 %, et ce à partir de la date du dépôt du présent mémoire ;
c) l’Ouganda est tenu de verser à la RDC la somme de 125 millions de
dollars des Etats‑Unis au titre de mesure de satisfaction pour l’ensemble
des dommages immatériels résultant des violations du droit international
constatées par la Cour dans son arrêt du 19 décembre 2005 ;
d) l’Ouganda est tenu, au titre de mesures de satisfaction, de mettre en
oeuvre des enquêtes et des poursuites pénales à l’encontre des officiers et
des soldats de l’UPDF impliqués dans les violations du droit international
humanitaire ou des normes internationales de protection des droits
de la personne commises en territoire congolais entre 1998 et 2003 ;
e) en cas de non‑paiement de l’indemnité octroyée par la Cour à la date
du jugement, des intérêts moratoires courront sur la somme principale
au taux que la Cour jugera approprié de fixer ;
armed activities (judgment) 33
24
Mr. Auguste Mampuya Kanunk’a‑Tshiabo,
Mr. Ivon Mingashang,
Mr. Mathias Forteau,
Mr. Philippe Sands,
Mr. Olivier Corten.
For Uganda: The Honourable William Byaruhanga,
Mr. Sean Murphy,
Mr. Pierre d’Argent,
Mr. Lawrence H. Martin,
Mr. Dapo Akande,
Mr. Yuri Parkhomenko,
Mr. Alain Pellet.
43. The experts appointed in the case (see paragraph 31 above) were heard at
two public hearings, in accordance with Article 65 of the Rules of Court. Questions
were put by counsel of the Parties to each of the experts. Members of the
Court put questions to Mr. Urdal and Ms Guha‑Sapir.
44. At the hearings, a Member of the Court put a question to the Parties, to
which replies were given orally, in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4, of
the Rules of Court.
*
45. In the written proceedings on the question of reparations, the following
submissions were presented by the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of the DRC,
in the Memorial:
“For the reasons set out above, and subject to any changes made to its
claims in the course of the proceedings, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo requests the Court to adjudge and declare that:
(a) Uganda is required to pay the DRC the sum of US$13,478,122,950
(thirteen [billion] four hundred and seventy‑eight million one hundred
and twenty‑two thousand nine hundred and fifty United States dollars)
in compensation for the damage resulting from the violations of international
law found by the Court in its Judgment of 19 December 2005;
(b) compensatory interest will be due on that amount at a rate of 6 per cent,
payable from the date on which the present Memorial was filed;
(c) Uganda is required to pay the DRC the sum of US$125 million by way
of giving satisfaction for all non‑material damage resulting from the
violations of international law found by the Court in its Judgment of
19 December 2005;
(d) Uganda is required, by way of giving satisfaction, to conduct criminal
investigations and prosecutions of the officers and soldiers of the UPDF
involved in the violations of international humanitarian law or international
human rights norms committed in Congolese territory
between 1998 and 2003;
(e) in the event of non‑payment of the compensation awarded by the Court
on the date of the judgment, moratory interest will accrue on the principal
sum at a rate to be determined by the Court;
34 activités armées (arrêt)
25
f) l’Ouganda est tenu de dédommager la RDC pour l’ensemble des frais
de justice exposés par cette dernière dans le cadre de la présente affaire. »
dans le contre‑mémoire :
« Pour les motifs qui précèdent, la République démocratique du Congo
demande à la Cour, sans aucune reconnaissance préjudiciable par la République
démocratique du Congo des principes juridiques énoncés dans le
mémoire de l’Ouganda, de dire et juger que :
a) la constatation de la responsabilité internationale de la RDC par la Cour,
dans son arrêt du 19 décembre 2005, constitue une forme appropriée de
réparation pour le préjudice résultant des faits illicites suivants constatés
dans ce même arrêt : a) les mauvais traitements infligés, par les forces
congolaises, à des personnes présentes dans les locaux diplomatiques et des
diplomates ougandais à l’aéroport international de Ndjili ; b) l’invasion, la
saisie et l’occupation durable de la résidence officielle de l’Ambassadeur de
l’Ouganda à Kinshasa ; et c) la saisie des biens publics et privés qui se
trouvaient dans les locaux diplomatiques de l’Ouganda à Kinshasa ;
b) l’Ouganda a droit au paiement par la RDC d’une somme de
982 797,73 dollars des Etats‑Unis, montant non contesté par la RDC
dans le cadre de la procédure devant la Cour, au titre de l’indemnisation
du préjudice résultant de l’invasion, la saisie et l’occupation durable des
bâtiments de la chancellerie de l’Ouganda à Kinshasa ;
c) l’indemnisation ainsi accordée à l’Ouganda sera compensée avec celle
accordée à la RDC sur la base de ses demandes au principal dans la
présente affaire. »
Au nom du Gouvernement de l’Ouganda,
dans le mémoire :
« Sur la base des faits et du droit exposés dans le présent mémoire, l’Ouganda
prie respectueusement la Cour de dire et juger que,
1) en ce qui concerne les pertes, dommages ou préjudices résultant a) des
mauvais traitements infligés à certaines personnes par des soldats congolais
dans les locaux diplomatiques de l’Ouganda ainsi qu’aux diplomates
ougandais qui se trouvaient à l’aéroport de Ndjili ; b) de l’invasion, la prise
et l’occupation durable de la résidence de l’ambassadeur de l’Ouganda à
Kinshasa ; et c) de la saisie de biens publics et personnels dans les locaux
diplomatiques de l’Ouganda à Kinshasa, le constat de la responsabilité
internationale de la RDC, énoncé par la Cour dans l’arrêt de 2005, constitue
une forme appropriée de satisfaction, qui répare le préjudice subi ;
2) en ce qui concerne les pertes, dommages ou préjudices résultant de l’invasion,
la prise et l’occupation durable des bâtiments de la chancellerie
de l’Ouganda à Kinshasa, la RDC a l’obligation de verser à la République
de l’Ouganda une réparation de nature pécuniaire d’un montant
total de 982 797,73 dollars des Etats‑Unis d’Amérique. »
dans le contre‑mémoire :
« Sur la base des faits et du droit exposés dans le présent contre‑mémoire,
l’Ouganda prie respectueusement la Cour de dire et juger que
1) le constat de la responsabilité internationale de l’Ouganda, énoncé par
la Cour dans l’arrêt de 2005, constitue une forme appropriée de satisfaction,
qui répare le préjudice subi ;
armed activities (judgment) 34
25
(f) Uganda is required to reimburse the DRC for all the costs incurred by
the latter in the context of the present case.”
in the Counter‑Memorial:
“For the reasons set out above, the Democratic Republic of the Congo
requests the Court, without any prejudicial recognition by the Democratic
Republic of the Congo of the legal principles set out in the Memorial of
Uganda, to adjudge and declare that:
(a) the Court’s finding of the DRC’s international responsibility in its
Judgment of 19 December 2005 constitutes an appropriate form of
reparation
for the injury arising from the following wrongful acts as
found in that same Judgment: (a) the maltreatment by Congolese
forces of individuals on Uganda’s diplomatic premises and of Ugandan
diplomats at Ndjili International Airport; (b) the invasion, seizure
and long‑term occupation of the official residence of the Ambassador
of Uganda in Kinshasa; and (c) the seizure of public and personal
property
from Uganda’s diplomatic premises in Kinshasa;
(b) Uganda is entitled to payment of a sum of US$982,797.73 by the DRC,
an amount not contested by the DRC in the context of the proceedings
before the Court, in compensation for the injury resulting from the
invasion, seizure and long‑term occupation of Uganda’s Chancery
compound in Kinshasa;
(c) the compensation thus awarded to Uganda will be offset against that
awarded to the DRC on the basis of its principal claims in the present
case.”
On behalf of the Government of Uganda,
in the Memorial:
“On the basis of the facts and law set forth in this Memorial, Uganda
respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that:
(1) With respect to the loss, damage or injury arising from (a) the maltreatment
of persons by Congolese forces on Uganda’s diplomatic
premises and of Ugandan diplomats at Ndjili Airport; (b) the invasion,
seizure and long‑term occupation of the residence of the Ambassador
of Uganda in Kinshasa; and (c) the seizure of public and personal
property from Uganda’s diplomatic premises in Kinshasa, the Court’s
formal findings of the DRC’s international responsibility in the
2005 Judgment constitute an appropriate form of satisfaction, providing
reparation for the injury suffered.
(2) With respect to the loss, damage or injury arising from the invasion,
seizure and long‑term occupation of Uganda’s Chancery compound in
Kinshasa, the DRC is obligated to make monetary compensation to
the Republic of Uganda in the total amount of US$982,797.73.”
in the Counter‑Memorial:
“On the basis of the facts and law set forth in this Counter‑Memorial,
Uganda respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that:
(1) the Court’s formal findings of Uganda’s international responsibility in
the 2005 Judgment constitute an appropriate form of satisfaction, providing
reparation for the injury suffered;
35 activités armées (arrêt)
26
2) toutes les autres demandes de réparation présentées par la RDC sont
rejetées ; et
3) chaque Partie supporte ses propres frais de procédure. »
46. A l’audience, les conclusions ci‑après ont été formulées par les Parties :
Au nom du Gouvernement de la RDC,
« Pour les motifs qui ont été exposés dans ses pièces de procédure écrite
et ses présentations orales, la République démocratique du Congo demande
à la Cour de dire et juger que :
1) En ce qui concerne les demandes de la République démocratique du
Congo :
a) l’Ouganda est tenu de verser à la République démocratique du
Congo au titre de l’indemnisation des dommages résultant des violations
du droit international constatées par la Cour dans son arrêt
du 19 décembre 2005 :
— pas moins de quatre milliards trois cent cinquante millions
quatre cent vingt et un mille huit cents dollars des Etats‑Unis
(4 350 421 800 dollars des Etats‑Unis) pour les dommages causés
aux personnes ;
— pas moins de deux cent trente‑neuf millions neuf cent soixante
et onze mille neuf cent soixante‑dix dollars des Etats‑Unis
(239 971 970 dollars des Etats‑Unis) pour les dommages causés
aux biens ;
— pas moins d’un milliard quarante‑trois millions cinq cent
soixante‑trois mille huit cent neuf dollars des Etats‑Unis
(1 043 563 809 dollars des Etats‑Unis) pour les dommages causés
aux ressources naturelles ;
— pas moins de cinq milliards sept cent quatorze millions sept cent
soixante‑quinze dollars des Etats‑Unis (5 714 000 775 dollars
des Etats‑Unis) pour le dommage macroéconomique.
b) des intérêts compensatoires seront dus sur les postes de réclamations
autres que ceux pour lesquels le montant des indemnités allouées par
la Cour selon une évaluation globale tiendrait déjà compte des effets
du passage du temps, à concurrence de 4 %, et ce, à partir de la date
du dépôt du mémoire en réparation ;
c) l’Ouganda est tenu, au titre de mesures de satisfaction, de verser à
la République démocratique du Congo une somme de 25 millions de
dollars des Etats‑Unis en vue de la création d’un fonds destiné à
assurer la réconciliation entre les Hema et les Lendu en Ituri et une
somme de 100 millions de dollars des Etats‑Unis pour la réparation
du dommage immatériel subi par l’Etat congolais du fait des violations
du droit international constatées par la Cour dans son arrêt du
19 décembre 2005 ;
d) l’Ouganda est tenu, au titre de mesures de satisfaction, de mettre en
oeuvre des enquêtes et des poursuites pénales à l’encontre des individus
impliqués dans les violations du droit international humanitaire
ou des normes internationales de protection des droits de la personne
commises en territoire congolais entre 1998 et 2003 dont l’Ouganda
a été reconnu responsable ;
armed activities (judgment) 35
26
(2) all other reparation sought by the DRC is denied; and
(3) each Party shall bear its own costs of these proceedings.”
46. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Parties:
On behalf of the Government of the DRC,
“For the reasons set out in its written pleadings and oral arguments, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo requests the Court to adjudge and
declare that:
(1) With regard to the claims of the Democratic Republic of the Congo:
(a) Uganda is required to pay the Democratic Republic of the Congo
in compensation for the damage resulting from the violations of
international law found by the Court in its Judgment of 19 December
2005:
— no less than four billion three hundred and fifty million four
hundred and twenty‑one thousand eight hundred United States
dollars (US$4,350,421,800) for personal injury;
— no less than two hundred and thirty‑nine million nine hundred
and seventy‑one thousand nine hundred and seventy
United States dollars (US$239,971,970) for damage to property;
— no less than one billion forty‑three million five hundred and
sixty‑three thousand eight hundred and nine United States dollars
(US$1,043,563,809) for damage to natural resources;
— no less than five billion seven hundred and fourteen million
seven hundred and seventy‑five United States dollars
(US$5,714,000,775) for macroeconomic damage.
(b) compensatory interest will be due on heads of claim other than
those for which the amount of compensation awarded by the
Court, based on an overall assessment, already takes account of
the passage of time, at a rate of 4 per cent, payable from the date
of the filing of the Memorial on reparation;
(c) Uganda is required, by way of giving satisfaction, to pay the
Democratic
Republic of the Congo the sum of US$25 million for
the creation of a fund to promote reconciliation between the Hema
and Lendu in Ituri, and the sum of US$100 million for the non‑material
harm suffered by the Congolese State as a result of the
violations of international law found by the Court in its Judgment
of 19 December 2005;
(d) Uganda is required, by way of giving satisfaction, to conduct criminal
investigations and prosecutions of the individuals involved in
the violations of international humanitarian law or international
human rights norms committed in Congolese territory between
1998 and 2003 for which Uganda has been found responsible;
36 activités armées (arrêt)
27
e) en cas de non‑paiement de l’indemnité octroyée par la Cour à la date
du jugement, des intérêts moratoires courront sur la somme principale
à un taux d’intérêt de 6 % ;
f) l’Ouganda est tenu de dédommager la République démocratique du
Congo pour l’ensemble des frais de justice exposés par cette dernière
dans le cadre de la présente affaire.
2) En ce qui concerne la demande reconventionnelle de l’Ouganda, et
sans aucune reconnaissance préjudiciable par la République démocratique
du Congo des principes juridiques énoncés dans le mémoire de
l’Ouganda :
a) la constatation de la responsabilité internationale de la République
démocratique du Congo par la Cour, dans son arrêt du 19 décembre
2005, constitue une forme appropriée de réparation pour le préjudice
résultant des faits illicites constatés dans ce même arrêt ;
b) l’Ouganda a droit, par ailleurs, au paiement par la République
démocratique du Congo d’une somme de 982 797,73 dollars des
Etats‑Unis (neuf cent quatre‑vingt‑deux mille sept cent quatre‑vingt‑dix‑sept
dollars des Etats‑Unis et soixante‑treize cents), montant
non contesté par la République démocratique du Congo dans
le cadre de la procédure devant la Cour, au titre de l’indemnisation
du préjudice résultant de l’invasion, la saisie et l’occupation
durable des bâtiments de la chancellerie de l’Ouganda à Kinshasa ;
c) l’indemnisation ainsi accordée à l’Ouganda fera l’objet d’une compensation
avec celle accordée à la République démocratique du
Congo sur la base de ses demandes au principal dans la présente
affaire.
3) La Cour est également priée de constater que le présent différend ne sera
totalement et définitivement réglé que lorsque l’Ouganda se sera effectivement
acquitté des réparations et indemnités prononcées par la Cour.
Dans l’attente, la Cour restera saisie de la présente affaire. »
Au nom du Gouvernement de l’Ouganda,
« La République de l’Ouganda prie respectueusement la Cour :
1) de dire et juger que :
a) la République démocratique du Congo n’a le droit d’obtenir réparation
sous forme d’indemnisation que dans la mesure où elle s’est
acquittée de l’obligation, mise à sa charge par la Cour au paragraphe
260 de l’arrêt de 2005, « de démontrer, en en apportant la
preuve, le préjudice exact qu’elle a subi du fait des actions spécifiques
de l’Ouganda constituant des faits internationalement illicites dont
il est responsable » ;
b) le constat de la responsabilité internationale de l’Ouganda, énoncé
par la Cour dans l’arrêt de 2005, constitue pour le reste une forme
appropriée de satisfaction ;
c) chaque Partie supporte ses frais de procédure en l’espèce ; et
2) de rejeter le surplus des conclusions de la République démocratique du
Congo. »
*
armed activities (judgment) 36
27
(e) in the event of non‑payment of the compensation awarded by the
Court on the date of the judgment, moratory interest will accrue
on the principal sum at a rate of 6 per cent;
(f) Uganda is required to reimburse the Democratic Republic of the
Congo for all the costs incurred by the latter in the context of the
present case.
(2) With regard to Uganda’s counter‑claim, and without any prejudicial
recognition by the Democratic Republic of the Congo of the legal principles
set out in the Memorial of Uganda:
(a) the Court’s finding of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s
international responsibility in its Judgment of 19 December 2005
constitutes an appropriate form of reparation for the injury arising
from the wrongful acts as found in the same Judgment;
(b) Uganda is otherwise entitled to payment of the sum of
US$982,797.73 (nine hundred and eighty‑two thousand seven hundred
and ninety‑seven United States dollars and seventy‑three
cents)
by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, an amount not contested
by the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the context of the
proceedings before the Court, in compensation for the injury
resulting from the invasion, seizure and long‑term occupation
of Uganda’s Chancery compound in Kinshasa;
(c) the compensation thus awarded to Uganda will be offset against
that awarded to the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the basis
of its principal claims in the present case.
(3) The Court is further requested to declare that the present dispute will
not be fully and finally resolved until Uganda has actually paid the
reparations and compensation ordered by the Court. Until that time,
the Court will remain seised of the present case.”
On behalf of the Government of Uganda,
“The Republic of Uganda respectfully requests that the Court:
(1) Adjudge and declare that:
(a) The DRC is entitled to reparation in the form of compensation
only to the extent it has discharged the burden the Court placed
on it in paragraph 260 of the 2005 Judgment ‘to demonstrate and
prove the exact injury that was suffered as a result of specific
actions of Uganda constituting internationally wrongful acts for
which it is responsible’;
(b) The Court’s finding of Uganda’s international responsibility in the
2005 Judgment otherwise constitutes an appropriate form of satisfaction;
and
(c) Each Party shall bear its own costs of these proceedings; and
(2) Reject all other submissions of the DRC.”
*
37 activités armées (arrêt)
28
47. Au terme des audiences, l’agent de l’Ouganda a informé la Cour que son
gouvernement « renon[çait] officiellement à sa demande reconventionnelle de
réparation du préjudice causé par les forces armées de la RDC en conséquence,
notamment, des attaques contre sa chancellerie à Kinshasa et des mauvais traitements
infligés aux diplomates ougandais ».
* * *
I. Introduction
48. Les Parties n’étant pas parvenues à s’entendre sur le règlement de
la question des réparations, il appartient maintenant à la Cour de déterminer
la nature et le montant des réparations devant être octroyées à la
RDC pour le préjudice causé par les manquements de l’Ouganda aux
obligations internationales lui incombant, suivant les conclusions énoncées
par la Cour dans son arrêt de 2005. La Cour commencera par rappeler
certains éléments sur lesquels elle a fondé ledit arrêt.
49. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a tout d’abord appelé l’attention
sur « la situation complexe et tragique qui préva[lait] depuis longtemps
dans la région des Grands Lacs ». Elle a également noté que cette situation
avait entraîné « beaucoup de souffrance pour la population locale et [la]
déstabilisation d’une grande partie de la région ». La Cour a toutefois
expliqué que sa mission était de « trancher, sur la base du droit international,
le différend juridique précis qui lui [étai]t soumis » et que, « [e]n interprétant
et en appliquant le droit, elle gardera[it] ce contexte présent à
l’esprit, mais ne saurait aller au-
delà » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 190, par. 26).
50. La Cour a conclu, dans cet arrêt, que l’Ouganda avait manqué à
plusieurs des obligations lui incombant en droit international, et qu’il
était par conséquent tenu, envers la RDC, de réparer le préjudice causé
(voir le paragraphe 6 ci-
dessus).
Elle se bornera ici à rappeler les faits et
conclusions essentiels qui l’ont conduite à juger que la responsabilité
internationale de l’Ouganda était engagée. Elle reviendra plus en détail
sur le contexte et d’autres faits pertinents de l’affaire lorsqu’elle énoncera
certaines considérations générales portant sur la question des réparations
(partie II, section A, paragraphes 61-68 ci-
dessous)
et examinera les
demandes présentées par la RDC pour différentes formes de préjudice
(parties III et IV, paragraphes 132-392 ci-
dessous).
51. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a jugé que, de la mi-1997 à la
mi-1998, l’Ouganda s’était vu autoriser, par le Gouvernement de la RDC,
à entreprendre des actions militaires contre les rebelles antiougandais dans
la partie orientale du territoire congolais. La Cour a toutefois relevé que la
RDC avait, au plus tard le 8 août 1998, retiré tout consentement à la présence
de troupes ougandaises sur son territoire. Entre août 1998 et
juin 2003, l’Ouganda a mené dans l’est de la RDC, ainsi que dans d’autres
parties du pays, des opérations militaires illicites, qui l’ont conduit à
prendre le contrôle de plusieurs localités des provinces du Nord-Kivu,
armed activities (judgment) 37
28
47. At the end of the hearings, the Agent of Uganda informed the Court that
his Government “officially waive[d] its counter‑claim for reparation for the
injury caused by the conduct of the DRC’s armed forces, including attacks on
the Ugandan diplomatic premises in Kinshasa and the maltreatment of Ugandan
diplomats”.
* * *
I. Introduction
48. In view of the failure by the Parties to settle the question of reparations
by agreement, it now falls to the Court to determine the nature and
amount of reparations to be awarded to the DRC for injury caused by
Uganda’s violations of its international obligations, pursuant to the findings
of the Court set out in the 2005 Judgment. The Court begins by
recalling certain elements on which it based that Judgment.
49. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court first pointed to the “complex and
tragic situation which ha[d] long prevailed in the Great Lakes region”
and also noted that there had been “much suffering by the local population
and destabilization of much of the region”. The Court explained,
however, that its task was “to respond, on the basis of international
law, to the particular legal dispute brought before it” and that, “[a]s it
interpret[ed] and applie[d] the law, it w[ould] be mindful of context,
but its task [could] not go beyond that” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 190,
para. 26).
50. The Court found, in that Judgment, that Uganda had violated several
obligations incumbent on it under international law and that it was
therefore under an obligation to make reparation to the DRC for the
injury caused (see paragraph 6 above). The Court will recall here only the
basic facts and conclusions that led it to hold Uganda internationally
responsible. The Court will recall the context and other relevant facts of
the case in more detail when setting out certain general considerations
with respect to the question of reparations (Part II, Section A, paragraphs
61‑68 below) and when addressing the DRC’s claims for various
forms of damage (Parts III and IV, paragraphs 132‑392 below).
51. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that, from mid‑1997 to the
first half of 1998, Uganda was allowed by the Government of the DRC to
engage in military action against anti‑Ugandan rebels in the eastern part
of Congolese territory. However, the Court concluded that any consent
by the DRC to the presence of Ugandan troops on its territory had been
withdrawn by 8 August 1998 at the latest. From August 1998 until June
2003, Uganda conducted unlawful military operations in the east of the
DRC, as well as in other parts of the country. In so doing, it took control
of several locations in the provinces of North Kivu, Orientale and Equa-
38 activités armées (arrêt)
29
Orientale et de l’Equateur (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 206‑207, par. 78‑81). Les
forces de défense du peuple ougandais (ci‑après les « UPDF ») sont ainsi
intervenues dans un grand nombre de localités (ibid., p. 224, par. 153),
notamment à Kisangani, où elles ont pris part à des combats de grande
ampleur contre les forces rwandaises, en particulier en août 1999 et en mai
et juin 2000 (ibid., p. 207, par. 80). Entre août 1998 et juin 2003 étaient
également présentes sur le territoire de la RDC les forces d’autres Etats,
ainsi que des forces irrégulières, soutenues, pour certaines, par l’Ouganda.
52. La Cour a conclu que l’Ouganda était une « puissance occupante »,
au sens du jus in bello, dans le district de l’Ituri à l’époque pertinente
(ibid., p. 231, par. 178), et qu’il avait engagé sa responsabilité à la fois à
raison de tout acte de ses forces armées contraire à ses obligations internationales
et pour n’avoir pas exercé la vigilance requise pour prévenir les
violations des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire par
d’autres acteurs présents sur le territoire occupé, en ce compris des
groupes rebelles agissant pour leur propre compte (ibid., par. 179). La
Cour a également dit que l’Ouganda avait engagé sa responsabilité internationale
à raison des actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources
naturelles de la RDC commis par des membres des UPDF sur le territoire
congolais, y compris en Ituri, et pour avoir manqué aux obligations lui
incombant en tant que puissance occupante en Ituri quant à l’ensemble
des actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles commis
dans le territoire occupé (ibid., p. 253, par. 250).
53. La Cour a par ailleurs conclu que l’Ouganda,
« en se livrant à des actions militaires à l’encontre de la République
démocratique du Congo sur le territoire de celle-
ci, en occupant
l’Ituri et en soutenant activement, sur les plans militaire, logistique,
économique et financier, des forces irrégulières qui opéraient sur le
territoire congolais, a[vait] violé le principe du non-recours
à la force
dans les relations internationales et le principe de non-intervention
»
(ibid., p. 280, par. 345, point 1) du dispositif).
54. La Cour est parvenue à la conclusion que « des violations massives
des droits de l’homme et de graves manquements au droit international
humanitaire [avaie]nt été commis par les UPDF sur le territoire de
la RDC » durant le conflit (ibid., p. 239, par. 207), constatant en
outre que ces forces n’avaient rien fait pour protéger la population civile
et n’avaient opéré aucune distinction entre combattants et non-combattants
au cours d’affrontements avec d’autres forces (ibid., p. 240,
par. 208). Elle a estimé qu’il existait des éléments concluants prouvant
que, dans le district de l’Ituri, les UPDF avaient incité à des conflits
ethniques
et n’avaient pris aucune mesure pour prévenir de tels conflits
(ibid., par. 209). Elle a également jugé que des éléments convaincants
démontraient que des enfants-soldats
avaient été entraînés dans les
camps des UPDF, et que celles-
ci n’avaient rien fait pour empêcher
leur recrutement dans les zones sous leur contrôle (ibid., p. 241,
par. 210).
armed activities (judgment) 38
29
teur (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 206‑207, paras. 78‑81). The Uganda Peoples’
Defence Forces (hereinafter the “UPDF”) conducted military operations
in a large number of locations (ibid., p. 224, para. 153), including in
Kisangani, where it engaged in large‑scale fighting against Rwandan
forces, particularly in August 1999 and in May and June 2000 (ibid.,
p. 207, para. 80). From August 1998 until June 2003, the forces of other
States were also present on the DRC’s territory, as were irregular forces,
some of which were supported by Uganda.
52. The Court concluded that Uganda was an “occupying Power”,
within the meaning of the term as understood in the jus in bello, in Ituri
district at the relevant time (ibid., p. 231, para. 178). It found that Uganda’s
responsibility was thus engaged both for any acts of its military that
violated its international obligations and for any lack of vigilance in preventing
violations of human rights and international humanitarian law by
other actors present in the occupied territory, including rebel groups acting
on their own account (ibid., para. 179). The Court also found that
Uganda was internationally responsible for acts of looting, plundering
and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources committed by members
of the UPDF in the territory of the DRC, including in Ituri, and for failing
to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri in
respect of all acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural
resources in the occupied territory (ibid., p. 253, para. 250).
53. The Court further concluded that Uganda,
“by engaging in military activities against the Democratic Republic
of the Congo on the latter’s territory, by occupying Ituri and by
actively extending military, logistic, economic and financial support
to irregular forces having operated on the territory of the DRC, violated
the principle of non-use of force in international relations and
the principle of non-intervention”
(ibid., p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (1)
of the operative part).
54. The Court found that “massive human rights violations and grave
breaches of international humanitarian law were committed by the UPDF
on the territory of the DRC” during the conflict (ibid., p. 239, para. 207).
The Court further found that the UPDF had failed to protect the civilian
population and to distinguish between combatants and non‑combatants
in the course of fighting against other troops (ibid., p. 240, para. 208). It
considered that there was persuasive evidence that, in Ituri district, the
UPDF had incited ethnic conflicts and taken no action to prevent such
conflicts (ibid., para. 209). Moreover, the Court found that there was convincing
evidence that child soldiers had been trained in UPDF training
camps and that the UPDF had failed to prevent the recruitment of child
soldiers in areas under its control (ibid., p. 241, para. 210).
39 activités armées (arrêt)
30
55. La Cour a conclu, sur la base de ces constats, que,
« par le comportement de ses forces armées, qui [avaie]nt commis des
meurtres et des actes de torture et autres formes de traitement inhumain
à l’encontre de la population civile congolaise, [avaie]nt détruit
des villages et des bâtiments civils, [avaie]nt manqué d’établir une
distinction entre cibles civiles et cibles militaires et de protéger la
population civile lors d’affrontements avec d’autres combattants,
[avaie]nt entraîné des enfants-soldats,
[avaie]nt incité au conflit ethnique
et [avaie]nt manqué de prendre des mesures visant à y mettre
un terme, et pour n’avoir pas, en tant que puissance occupante, pris
de mesures visant à respecter et à faire respecter les droits de l’homme
et le droit international humanitaire dans le district de l’Ituri, la
République de l’Ouganda a[vait] violé les obligations lui incombant
en vertu du droit international relatif aux droits de l’homme et du
droit international humanitaire » (arrêt de 2005, C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 280, par. 345, point 3) du dispositif).
56. Enfin, la Cour a dit, dans son arrêt de 2005, que « des officiers et
des soldats des UPDF, parmi lesquels les officiers les plus haut gradés,
[avaie]nt participé au pillage et à l’exploitation des ressources naturelles
de la RDC et que les autorités militaires n’[avaie]nt pris aucune mesure
pour mettre un terme à ces activités » (ibid., p. 251, par. 242). Elle a également
considéré que l’Ouganda était tenu, au regard des obligations qui
lui incombaient en tant que puissance occupante en Ituri, de prendre des
mesures appropriées pour prévenir le pillage et l’exploitation des ressources
naturelles dans le territoire occupé, non seulement par des
membres de ses forces armées, mais également par les personnes privées.
Selon la Cour, il apparaissait clairement que, « plutôt que de prévenir le
trafic illicite de ressources naturelles, et notamment de diamants, des officiers
supérieurs des UPDF [avaie]nt au contraire favorisé de telles activités
par le biais d’entités commerciales » (ibid., p. 253, par. 248-249).
57. La Cour a conclu à cet égard que,
« par les actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles
congolaises commis par des membres des forces armées ougandaises
sur le territoire de la République démocratique du Congo, et par son
manquement aux obligations lui incombant, en tant que puissance
occupante dans le district de l’Ituri, d’empêcher les actes de pillage et
d’exploitation des ressources naturelles congolaises, … l’Ouganda
a[vait] violé les obligations qui [étaie]nt les siennes, en vertu du droit
international, envers la République démocratique du Congo » (ibid.,
p. 280‑281, par. 345, point 4) du dispositif).
58. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a par ailleurs jugé que la RDC
avait manqué aux obligations lui incombant à l’égard de l’Ouganda en
vertu de la convention de Vienne de 1961 sur les relations diplomatiques,
et qu’elle était tenue, envers cet Etat, de réparer le préjudice causé (voir le
paragraphe 7 ci-
dessus).
Sur ce point, il convient toutefois de relever que,
armed activities (judgment) 39
30
55. The Court concluded on the basis of these findings that Uganda,
“by the conduct of its armed forces, which committed acts of killing,
torture and other forms of inhumane treatment of the Congolese civilian
population, destroyed villages and civilian buildings, failed to
distinguish between civilian and military targets and to protect the
civilian population in fighting with other combatants, trained child
soldiers, incited ethnic conflict and failed to take measures to put an
end to such conflict; as well as by its failure, as an occupying Power,
to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and
international humanitarian law in Ituri district, violated its obligations
under international human rights law and international humanitarian
law” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345,
subpara. (3) of the operative part).
56. Finally, the Court found that “officers and soldiers of the UPDF,
including the most high‑ranking officers, [had been] involved in the looting,
plundering and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources and that
the military authorities [had] not take[n] any measures to put an end to
these acts” (ibid., p. 251, para. 242). It also held that Uganda’s obligations
as an occupying Power in Ituri district required it to take appropriate
measures to prevent the looting, plundering and exploitation of
natural resources in the occupied territory, not only by members of
its military but also by private persons. In the view of the Court, it was
apparent “that rather than preventing the illegal traffic in natural
resources, including diamonds, high‑ranking members of the UPDF
facilitated
such activities by commercial entities” (ibid., p. 253, paras. 248‑
249).
57. In this regard, the Court concluded that Uganda,
“by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese natural
resources committed by members of the Ugandan armed forces in the
territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and by its failure
to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri district
to prevent acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of Congolese
natural resources, violated obligations owed to the Democratic
Republic of the Congo under international law” (ibid., pp. 280‑281,
para. 345, subpara. (4) of the operative part).
58. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court also ruled that the DRC had violated
obligations owed to Uganda under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic
Relations of 1961 and that the DRC was under an obligation to
make reparation to Uganda for the injury caused (see paragraph 7 above).
In this regard, however, as recalled above, at the hearing of 30 April 2021,
40 activités armées (arrêt)
31
comme cela a été rappelé ci-
dessus,
à l’audience du 30 avril 2021, l’agent
de l’Ouganda a indiqué que son gouvernement avait décidé de renoncer à
sa demande reconventionnelle de réparation (voir le paragraphe 47
ci-
dessus).
La Cour est donc à présent saisie de la seule question des réparations
dues par l’Ouganda à la RDC.
*
59. Dans la présente phase de l’instance, la RDC demande à la Cour
de dire et juger que l’Ouganda doit l’indemniser au titre de quatre chefs
de dommages, à savoir les dommages aux personnes, les dommages aux
biens, les dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles et le dommage
macroéconomique. Pour chacun des trois premiers chefs de dommages, la
RDC formule des prétentions relatives à plusieurs types de dommages.
En particulier, le premier chef de dommages (dommages aux personnes)
comprend les demandes de la RDC concernant les pertes en vies humaines,
les atteintes aux personnes, les viols et violences sexuelles, le recrutement
et le déploiement d’enfants-soldats
et les déplacements de population. La
RDC sollicite également plusieurs mesures de satisfaction.
II. Considérations générales
60. La Cour rappellera tout d’abord le contexte de la présente affaire
(section A). Elle examinera ensuite, à la lumière de ce contexte, les principes
et les règles applicables à l’évaluation des réparations en l’espèce
(section B), les questions relatives à la preuve (section C) et les types de
dommages objets de la réparation (section D).
A. Contexte
61. La Cour relève que les Parties ont attaché une grande importance
au contexte dans lequel les faits internationalement illicites de l’Ouganda
et les préjudices subis par la RDC ont eu lieu. Toutefois, elles s’opposent
sur le poids que la Cour devrait accorder à ce contexte dans le cadre de
l’évaluation des différents types de dommages et des montants de l’indemnisation
due.
* *
62. La RDC, qui considère que cette affaire est « sans précédent »
devant la Cour, estime que celle‑ci doit prendre en considération le
contexte lorsqu’elle évalue les preuves relatives à chaque chef de dommages.
Elle met en exergue le temps écoulé depuis les événements en
cause, l’insuffisance de ses ressources, la poursuite du conflit sur son territoire,
le traumatisme subi par un grand nombre des victimes et leur faible
niveau d’instruction, ainsi que la destruction et perte de preuves et
armed activities (judgment) 40
31
the Agent of Uganda stated that Uganda had decided to waive its
counter-
claim for reparation (see paragraph 47). Therefore, the Court is
now seised of the sole question of the reparation owed by Uganda to the
DRC.
*
59. In the present phase of the proceedings, the DRC asks the Court to
adjudge and declare that Uganda must pay compensation under four
heads of damage, namely damage to persons, damage to property, damage
related to natural resources, and macroeconomic damage. Under
each of the first three heads of damage, the DRC makes claims with
respect to several forms of damage. In particular, the first head of damage
(damage to persons) includes the DRC’s claims for loss of life, injuries to
persons, rape and sexual violence, recruitment and deployment of child
soldiers and displacement of populations. The DRC also seeks several
measures of satisfaction.
II. General Considerations
60. The Court will first recall the context of the present case (Section
A). It will then examine, in light of that context, the principles and
rules applicable to the assessment of reparations in this case (Section B),
questions of proof (Section C) and the forms of damage subject to reparation
(Section D).
A. Context
61. The Court notes that the Parties have attached great importance to
the context in which Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts and the
injury suffered by the DRC occurred. However, they disagree about how
much weight should be attached to that context by the Court in assessing
the various forms of damage and the amounts of compensation owed.
* *
62. The DRC, which regards this case as “unprecedented” before the
Court, argues that the Court must take the context into consideration
when assessing the evidence relating to each head of damage. It highlights
the time that has elapsed since the events concerned occurred, its lack of
resources, the continuing conflict on its territory, the trauma suffered by
a large number of victims and their low level of education, the destruction
and loss of evidence and other related difficulties. Finally, it contends
41 activités armées (arrêt)
32
d’autres difficultés connexes. Enfin, elle fait valoir que, « au vu des spécificités
des dommages de guerre qui ne peuvent par définition être identifiés
et évalués de manière systématique, la RDC a … été contrainte de
procéder à des évaluations qui, si elles sont globales, reposent sur des
éléments variés, solides et sérieux ».
63. Selon l’Ouganda, la RDC ne peut pas simplement invoquer la difficulté
de rassembler des preuves pour ne pas le faire, ou pour transférer
la charge de la preuve sur l’Ouganda. Le défendeur maintient que l’affirmation
selon laquelle il est impossible de rassembler des preuves relatives
aux dommages de guerre est manifestement fausse. Il cite comme exemples
l’invasion et l’occupation du Koweït par l’Iraq ainsi que l’invasion et l’occupation
du nord de l’Ethiopie par l’Erythrée, qui n’ont pas empêché la
présentation de preuves et de témoins devant les commissions concernées.
De même, l’Ouganda avance que de telles preuves ont été rassemblées
pour certaines demandes de réparation devant la Cour pénale internationale
(ci-
après la « CPI ») pour le même conflit que celui en l’espèce.
* *
64. Selon la Cour, le contexte de la présente affaire est particulièrement
pertinent pour l’analyse des faits. Tout d’abord, il s’agit d’une affaire qui
porte sur l’un des conflits armés les plus complexes et les plus meurtriers
du continent africain. De nombreux acteurs ont opéré sur le territoire de
la RDC entre 1998 et 2003, dont les forces armées de différents Etats,
ainsi que des forces armées irrégulières agissant souvent en liaison avec
les Etats intervenants. La Cour rappelle que la RDC avait déposé devant
elle des requêtes introductives d’instance contre le Burundi et le Rwanda
en 1999. A la demande de la RDC, l’instance introduite contre le Burundi
a été rayée du rôle (voir Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République
démocratique du Congo c. Burundi), ordonnance du 30 janvier 2001,
C.I.J. Recueil 2001, p. 4), alors que la Cour a jugé qu’elle n’avait pas
compétence pour connaître de la requête introductive d’instance à l’encontre
du Rwanda (Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle
requête : 2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006, p. 53, par. 128).
65. La Cour souligne que cette affaire se caractérise par la violation, de
la part de l’Ouganda, de certains des principes et des règles les plus fondamentaux
du droit international, à savoir les principes du non-recours
à
la force et de la non-intervention,
le droit international humanitaire et les
droits fondamentaux de la personne humaine. Il en est résulté des atteintes
massives à ces droits et de graves manquements au droit international
humanitaire, notamment des meurtres, des atteintes corporelles, des traitements
cruels et inhumains, des destructions de biens et des pillages des
ressources naturelles de la RDC. Quant au district de l’Ituri, il est passé
entièrement sous l’occupation militaire et le contrôle effectif de l’Ouganda.
A Kisangani, l’Ouganda a pris part à des combats de grande
ampleur contre les forces rwandaises.
armed activities (judgment) 41
32
that, “in view of the particular nature of war-related
damage, which, by
definition, cannot be identified and evaluated systematically, the DRC
has . . . been obliged to make assessments which, while general, are based
on a variety of solid and reliable evidence”.
63. Uganda is of the view that the DRC cannot simply plead difficulties
in gathering evidence in order not to have to do so or to shift the
burden of proof onto Uganda. The Respondent considers demonstrably
untrue the assertion that it is not possible to gather evidence of damage
relating to war. It cites as examples Iraq’s invasion and occupation of
Kuwait and Eritrea’s invasion and occupation of northern Ethiopia,
which did not prevent evidence or witness testimony from being presented
before the relevant commissions. Uganda also contends that such evidence
was gathered for certain reparation claims before the International
Criminal Court (hereinafter the “ICC”) for the same conflict as that at
issue in these proceedings.
* *
64. The Court considers that the context of the present case is particularly
relevant for the analysis of the facts. First and foremost, this case
concerns one of the most complex and deadliest armed conflicts to have
taken place on the African continent. There were numerous actors operating
on the territory of the DRC between 1998 and 2003, including the
armed forces of various States, as well as irregular armed forces that
often acted in collaboration with the intervening States. The Court recalls
that the DRC filed Applications instituting proceedings against Burundi
and Rwanda in 1999. At the request of the DRC, the proceedings against
Burundi were discontinued (see Armed Activities on the Territory of the
Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Burundi), Order of 30 January
2001, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 4), while the Court ruled that it did not
have jurisdiction to entertain the Application instituting proceedings
against Rwanda (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New
Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction
and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 53, para. 128).
65. The Court emphasizes that this case is characterized by Uganda’s
violation of some of the most fundamental principles and rules of international
law, namely the principles of non-use of force and of non-intervention,
international humanitarian law and basic human rights.
Its actions resulted in massive infringements of those rights and serious
violations of international humanitarian law, in the form of, inter alia,
killings, injuries, cruel and inhuman treatment, damage to property and
the plundering of Congolese natural resources. The entire district of Ituri
fell under the military occupation and effective control of Uganda. In
Kisangani, Uganda engaged in large‑scale fighting against Rwandan
forces.
42 activités armées (arrêt)
33
66. La Cour observe que le passage du temps, entre la présente
phase devant elle et le déroulement du conflit, soit une vingtaine d’années,
rendra encore plus délicate la tâche consistant à retrouver le cours
des événements
et à les qualifier juridiquement. La Cour note que les
Parties
ont toutefois été informées, depuis l’arrêt de 2005, qu’elles pourraient
être appelées à fournir des preuves dans le cadre d’une procédure en
réparation.
67. La Cour n’ignore pas que des difficultés en matière de preuves se
retrouvent, dans une certaine mesure, dans la plupart des situations de
conflit armé international. Cependant, ces questions de réparation sont
souvent réglées par la voie de négociations entre les parties concernées.
La Cour ne peut que regretter que les négociations en l’espèce, au cours
desquelles les Parties devaient « rechercher de bonne foi une solution
concertée » fondée sur les conclusions de l’arrêt de 2005, n’aient pas
abouti (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 257, par. 261).
68. La Cour tiendra compte du contexte de la présente affaire lorsqu’elle
déterminera l’étendue du préjudice et évaluera la réparation due
(voir les parties III et IV ci‑dessous). Elle examinera tout d’abord les principes
et les règles applicables à l’évaluation des réparations en l’espèce,
avant de se pencher sur les questions relatives à la preuve et sur les types
de dommages qui font l’objet de la réparation.
B. Les principes et les règles applicables à l’évaluation
des réparations en l’espèce
69. La Cour rappelle qu’elle a conclu, dans son arrêt de 2005, que
l’Ouganda était tenu de réparer les dommages causés par les faits internationalement
illicites (actions et omissions) qui lui sont attribuables :
« La Cour fait observer qu’il est bien établi en droit international
général que l’Etat responsable d’un fait internationalement illicite a
l’obligation de réparer en totalité le préjudice causé par ce fait (voir
Usine de Chorzów, compétence, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A nº 9, p. 21 ;
Projet
Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1997, p. 81, par. 152 ; Avena et autres ressortissants mexicains
(Mexique c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004, p. 59,
par. 119). Après examen du dossier de l’affaire et compte tenu de la
nature des faits internationalement illicites dont l’Ouganda a été
reconnu responsable (emploi illicite de la force, violation de la souveraineté
et de l’intégrité territoriale, intervention militaire, occupation
de l’Ituri, violations du droit international relatif aux droits de
l’homme et du droit international humanitaire, pillage et exploitation
des ressources naturelles de la RDC), la Cour considère que ces faits
ont entraîné un préjudice pour la RDC, ainsi que pour des personnes
présentes sur son territoire. Ayant établi que ce préjudice a été causé
à la RDC par l’Ouganda, la Cour déclare que ce dernier est tenu de
réparer ledit préjudice en conséquence. » (Ibid., p. 257, par. 259.)
armed activities (judgment) 42
33
66. The Court observes that the time that has elapsed between the current
phase of the proceedings and the unfolding of the conflict, namely
some 20 years, makes the task of establishing the course of events and
their legal characterization even more difficult. The Court notes, however,
that the Parties have been aware since the 2005 Judgment that they could
be called upon to provide evidence in reparation proceedings.
67. The Court is mindful of the fact that evidentiary difficulties arise,
to a certain extent, in most situations of international armed conflict.
However, questions of reparation are often resolved through negotiations
between the parties concerned. The Court can only regret the failure, in
this case, of the negotiations through which the Parties were to “seek in
good faith an agreed solution” based on the findings of the 2005 Judgment
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 261).
68. The Court will take the context of this case into account when
determining the extent of the injury and assessing the reparation owed
(see Parts III and IV below). It will first examine the principles and rules
applicable to the assessment of reparations in the present case, before
addressing questions of proof and the forms of damage subject to reparation.
B. The Principles and Rules Applicable to the Assessment
of Reparations in the Present Case
69. The Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it found that Uganda
was under an obligation to make reparation for the damage caused by
internationally wrongful acts (actions and omissions) attributable to it:
“The Court observes that it is well established in general international
law that a State which bears responsibility for an internationally
wrongful act is under an obligation to make full reparation for
the injury caused by that act (see Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction,
1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, p. 21; Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros
Project
(Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 81, para. 152;
Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 59, para. 119). Upon
examination of the case file, given the character of the internationally
wrongful acts for which Uganda has been found responsible (illegal
use of force, violation of sovereignty and territorial integrity, military
intervention, occupation of Ituri, violations of international human
rights law and of international humanitarian law, looting, plunder
and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources), the Court considers
that those acts resulted in injury to the DRC and to persons on
its territory. Having satisfied itself that this injury was caused
to the DRC by Uganda, the Court finds that Uganda has an obligation
to make reparation accordingly.” (Ibid., p. 257, para. 259.)
43 activités armées (arrêt)
34
70. En ce qui concerne la réparation, l’article 31 des Articles de la Commission
du droit international sur la responsabilité de l’Etat pour fait
internationalement illicite (ci‑après les « Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat »), qui reflète le droit international coutumier, dispose
que :
« 1. L’Etat responsable est tenu de réparer intégralement le préjudice
causé par le fait internationalement illicite.
2. Le préjudice comprend tout dommage, tant matériel que moral,
résultant du fait internationalement illicite de l’Etat. »
71. La Cour a précisé, dans son arrêt de 2005, la portée de la phase
ultérieure de la procédure, à défaut d’accord entre les Parties sur les réparations
:
« La Cour juge par ailleurs appropriée la demande de la RDC tendant
à ce que la nature, les formes et le montant de la réparation qui
lui est due soient, à défaut d’accord entre les Parties, déterminés par
la Cour dans une phase ultérieure de la procédure. La RDC aurait
ainsi l’occasion de démontrer, en en apportant la preuve, le préjudice
exact qu’elle a subi du fait des actions spécifiques de l’Ouganda
constituant des faits internationalement illicites dont il est responsable.
Il va sans dire cependant, ainsi que la Cour a déjà eu l’occasion
de l’indiquer, « que, dans la phase de la procédure consacrée à la
réparation, ni l’une ni l’autre des Parties ne pourra remettre en
cause les conclusions du présent arrêt qui seront passées en force de
chose jugée » (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 143, par. 284). » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 257,
par. 260.)
72. A la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour déterminera les principes et
les règles applicables à l’évaluation des réparations en l’espèce, en distinguant
tout d’abord entre les situations en cause dans le conflit en Ituri et
dans d’autres parties du territoire congolais (point 1), puis en analysant le
lien de causalité requis entre les faits internationalement illicites de l’Ouganda
et les préjudices subis par la RDC (point 2), enfin en examinant la
nature, les formes et le montant de la réparation (point 3).
1. Les principes et les règles applicables selon les situations en cause dans
le conflit
73. Les Parties sont en désaccord quant à l’étendue de l’obligation de
réparer incombant à l’Ouganda pour les préjudices subis dans deux situations
différentes, à savoir dans le district de l’Ituri, qui se trouvait sous
occupation ougandaise, et dans d’autres parties du territoire de la RDC
en dehors de l’Ituri, y compris à Kisangani où les forces armées ougandaises
et rwandaises intervenaient simultanément.
armed activities (judgment) 43
34
70. As regards reparation, Article 31 of the International Law Commission’s
Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful
Acts (hereinafter the “ILC Articles on State Responsibility”), which
reflects customary international law, provides that:
“1. The responsible State is under an obligation to make full reparation
for the injury caused by the internationally wrongful act.
2. Injury includes any damage, whether material or moral, caused by
the internationally wrongful act of a State.”
71. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court set out the scope of the subsequent
phase of the proceedings, should the Parties fail to agree on reparations:
“The Court further considers appropriate the request of the DRC
for the nature, form and amount of the reparation due to it to be
determined by the Court, failing agreement between the Parties, in a
subsequent phase of the proceedings. The DRC would thus be given
the opportunity to demonstrate and prove the exact injury that was
suffered as a result of specific actions of Uganda constituting internationally
wrongful acts for which it is responsible. It goes without saying,
however, as the Court has had the opportunity to state in the
past, ‘that in the phase of the proceedings devoted to reparation,
neither Party may call in question such findings in the present Judgment
as have become res judicata’ (Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 143, para. 284).” (I.C.J.
Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 260.)
72. In view of the foregoing, the Court will determine the principles
and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations in the present case,
first, by distinguishing between the different situations that arose during
the conflict in Ituri and in other areas of the DRC (Subsection 1); second,
by analysing the required causal nexus between Uganda’s internationally
wrongful acts and the injury suffered by the Applicant (Subsection 2);
and, finally, by examining the nature, form and amount of reparation
(Subsection 3).
1. The principles and rules applicable to the different situations that arose
during the conflict
73. The Parties disagree about the scope of Uganda’s obligation to
make reparation for the injury suffered in two different situations: in the
district of Ituri, under Ugandan occupation, and in other areas of the
DRC outside Ituri, including Kisangani where Ugandan and Rwandan
armed forces were operating simultaneously.
44 activités armées (arrêt)
35
a) En Ituri
74. Les Parties s’opposent sur le point de savoir si la réparation due
par l’Ouganda à la RDC s’étend aux dommages causés par des tiers dans
le district de l’Ituri.
75. Rappelant la qualité de puissance occupante de l’Ouganda, établie
par la Cour dans son arrêt de 2005, la RDC soutient que la responsabilité
du défendeur est engagée pour tous les dommages causés par des tiers en
Ituri. Selon le demandeur, l’Ouganda aurait manqué à son devoir de vigilance
en tant que puissance occupante. La RDC ajoute que, de par ce
statut de puissance occupante, le défendeur avait l’obligation de faire respecter
le droit international en protégeant la population, y compris des
actes des groupes rebelles en Ituri.
76. Selon la RDC, l’Ouganda ne peut pas exiger de la part de la RDC
des preuves précises et détaillées des préjudices subis en Ituri alors que,
en tant que puissance occupante dans ce district, l’Ouganda lui-
même
était à l’origine de la situation qui a conduit à la disparition des preuves
en question.
77. L’Ouganda, pour sa part, considère que le conflit entre les Hema et
les Lendu en Ituri a précédé, de plus d’un siècle, son intervention. Il
affirme que la RDC est tenue de démontrer le lien causal entre les manquements
de l’Ouganda à ses obligations de puissance occupante en Ituri
et les dommages survenus dans ce district du fait de particuliers ou de
groupes, qu’ils aient ou non été soutenus par le défendeur. S’appuyant sur
la décision de la Cour dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), le défendeur soutient qu’il faut
démontrer avec un degré suffisant de certitude que, s’il s’était correctement
acquitté de ses obligations de puissance occupante, les dommages
causés par des tiers, dont le comportement ne lui est pas attribuable, n’auraient
pas eu lieu.
* *
78. La Cour considère que le statut du district de l’Ituri, en tant que
territoire occupé, a une incidence directe sur les questions relatives à la
preuve et sur le lien de causalité requis. En tant que puissance occupante,
l’Ouganda avait un devoir de vigilance requise pour prévenir les violations
de droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire par
d’autres acteurs présents sur le territoire occupé, y compris les groupes
rebelles agissant pour leur propre compte. Compte tenu de ce devoir de
vigilance, la Cour a conclu que le défendeur avait engagé sa responsabilité
internationale « pour n’avoir pas … pris de mesures visant … à faire respecter
les droits de l’homme et le droit international humanitaire dans le
district de l’Ituri » (arrêt de 2005, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 231, par. 178-
179, p. 245, par. 211, et p. 280, par. 345, point 3) du dispositif). Eu égard
à la conclusion qui précède, il incombe à l’Ouganda, dans la présente
armed activities (judgment) 44
35
(a) In Ituri
74. The Parties hold opposing views on whether the reparation owed
by Uganda to the DRC extends to damage caused by third parties in the
district of Ituri.
75. Recalling Uganda’s status as an occupying Power, as established
by the Court in its 2005 Judgment, the DRC contends that the Respondent’s
responsibility is engaged for all the damage caused by third parties
in Ituri. In the Applicant’s view, Uganda violated its duty of vigilance as
an occupying Power. The DRC adds that, as an occupying Power, the
Respondent was under an obligation to uphold international law by protecting
the population, including from the acts of rebel groups in Ituri.
76. According to the DRC, Uganda cannot demand from it precise
and detailed evidence of the injury suffered in Ituri when, as the occupying
Power in that district, Uganda was itself at the root of the situation
that led to the disappearance of evidence.
77. Uganda, for its part, claims that the conflict between the Hema
and the Lendu in Ituri predated its intervention by over a century. It submits
that the DRC must prove the causal nexus between Uganda’s
breaches of its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri and the damage
inflicted in that district by individuals or groups, whether or not they
were supported by the Respondent. Relying on the Court’s decision in the
case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and
Montenegro), the Respondent argues that it is necessary to demonstrate
with a sufficient degree of certainty that the damage caused by third parties,
whose conduct is not attributable to it, would not have occurred had
it duly discharged its obligations as an occupying Power.
* *
78. The Court considers that the status of the district of Ituri as an
occupied territory has a direct bearing on questions of proof and the
requisite
causal nexus. As an occupying Power, Uganda had a duty of
vigilance in preventing violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law by other actors present in the occupied territory,
including rebel groups acting on their own account. Given this duty of
vigilance, the Court concluded that the Respondent’s responsibility was
engaged “by its failure . . . to take measures to . . . ensure respect for
human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri district” (2005
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 231, paras. 178‑179, p. 245, para. 211,
and p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part). Taking into
account this conclusion, it is for Uganda to establish, in this phase of the
proceedings, that a particular injury alleged by the DRC in Ituri was not
45 activités armées (arrêt)
36
phase de la procédure, d’établir que tel ou tel préjudice en Ituri, allégué
par la RDC, n’a pas été causé par son manquement à ses obligations de
puissance occupante. En l’absence d’éléments de preuve à cet égard, il est
possible de conclure que l’Ouganda doit réparation pour ce préjudice.
79. S’agissant des ressources naturelles, la Cour rappelle que, dans son
arrêt de 2005, elle a considéré que l’Ouganda, en tant que puissance occupante,
« était tenu de prendre des mesures appropriées pour prévenir
le pillage et l’exploitation des ressources naturelles dans le territoire
occupé … par les personnes privées présentes dans [le] district [de l’Ituri] »
(C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 253, par. 248). La Cour a conclu que l’Ouganda
avait « manqu[é] aux obligations lui incombant, en tant que puissance
occupante en Ituri, en vertu de l’article 43 du règlement de La Haye de
1907, quant à l’ensemble des actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources
naturelles commis dans le territoire occupé » (ibid., par. 250) et
que, à ce titre, sa responsabilité internationale était engagée (ibid., p. 281,
par. 345, point 4) du dispositif). La réparation due par l’Ouganda à raison
des actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles commis
en Ituri est examinée ci‑après (voir le paragraphe 275).
b) Hors Ituri
80. Pour ce qui est des dommages qui ont eu lieu en dehors de l’Ituri,
la RDC estime que l’Ouganda doit réparer tous les dommages causés par
les forces ougandaises et par les forces irrégulières soutenues par celui‑ci,
soit le Mouvement de libération du Congo (ci-
après le « MLC ») et son
aile militaire, l’Armée de libération du Congo (ci-
après l’« ALC »). Selon
le demandeur, ces dommages n’auraient pu être causés sans le soutien de
l’Ouganda. Le demandeur ajoute que la réparation due par l’Ouganda
doit également couvrir les préjudices résultant des actions d’autres forces
irrégulières qui s’y trouvaient et bénéficiaient du soutien fourni par le
défendeur. Tout en reconnaissant que certains dommages survenus à
Kisangani ont pu résulter d’une multiplicité de causes, dont les actions de
l’Ouganda, le demandeur considère que ces dommages ne se seraient pas
produits si l’Ouganda n’avait pas pénétré en territoire congolais en violation
du droit international. La RDC réclame l’indemnisation de ces préjudices
dans leur totalité. En outre, le demandeur mentionne d’autres
dommages causés à la fois par le comportement internationalement illicite
de l’Ouganda et par celui d’autres Etats ou de certains groupes qui
n’ont pas été soutenus par l’Ouganda, dommages pour lesquels la RDC
demande une réparation partielle (45 %) de la part de l’Ouganda.
81. Selon l’Ouganda, la réparation doit être limitée aux préjudices
directement causés par les membres de ses forces armées et la charge de la
preuve incombe à cet égard au demandeur. En ce qui concerne les préjudices
résultant des actions des forces irrégulières, le défendeur considère
qu’il ne peut être tenu de les réparer, même dans les situations où il a pu
fournir un soutien à de tels groupes, que si le demandeur prouve que tel
ou tel préjudice a été « subi du fait » du soutien illicite apporté par l’Ou-
armed activities (judgment) 45
36
caused by Uganda’s failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power.
In the absence of evidence to that effect, it may be concluded that Uganda
owes reparation in relation to such injury.
79. With respect to natural resources, the Court recalls that, in its
2005 Judgment, it considered that Uganda, as an occupying Power, had
an “obligation to take appropriate measures to prevent the looting, plundering
and exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory [by]
private persons in [Ituri] district” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 253, para. 248).
The Court found that Uganda had “fail[ed] to comply with its obligations
under Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of 1907 as an occupying Power
in Ituri in respect of all acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of
natural resources in the occupied territory” (ibid., para. 250) and that its
international responsibility was thereby engaged (ibid., p. 281, para. 345,
subpara. (4) of the operative part). The reparation owed by Uganda in
respect of acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources
in Ituri is addressed below (see paragraph 275).
(b) Outside Ituri
80. As regards damage that occurred outside Ituri, the DRC is of the
view that Uganda must make good any damage caused by Ugandan
forces or by irregular forces supported by Uganda, namely the Congo
Liberation Movement (hereinafter the “MLC”) and its armed wing, the
Congo Liberation Army (hereinafter the “ALC”). According to the
Applicant, this damage could not have been caused without Uganda’s
support. The Applicant adds that the reparation owed by Uganda must
also cover damage resulting from the actions of other irregular forces in
the area that received support from the Respondent. While the Applicant
acknowledges that some of the damage that occurred in Kisangani may
be the result of a multiplicity of causes, including the actions of Uganda,
it contends that this damage would not have occurred had Uganda not
entered Congolese territory in breach of international law. The DRC
claims compensation for the entirety of this injury. Furthermore, the
Applicant mentions other damage caused by both the internationally
wrongful conduct of Uganda and that of other States or certain groups
that were not supported by Uganda, damage for which the DRC seeks
partial (45 per cent) reparation from Uganda.
81. Uganda claims that reparation must be limited to the injury caused
directly by members of its armed forces and that the burden of proof rests
with the Applicant in this regard. With respect to injury caused by the
actions of irregular forces, the Respondent contends that even when it
provided support to those groups, Uganda can be found to owe reparation
for such injury only if the Applicant proves that it “was suffered as a
result of” Uganda’s illegal support. It adds that it is not enough to assert
46 activités armées (arrêt)
37
ganda. Il ajoute qu’il ne suffit pas d’affirmer in abstracto que, sans son
soutien, le préjudice attribuable aux groupes rebelles aurait été évité.
* *
82. La Cour rappelle que, dans son arrêt de 2005, elle a conclu que les
groupes rebelles, opérant sur le territoire de la RDC, en dehors de l’Ituri,
n’étaient pas sous le contrôle de l’Ouganda, que leur comportement ne lui
était pas attribuable et qu’il n’avait pas manqué à son devoir de vigilance
en ce qui concerne les activités illégales de tels groupes (C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 226, par. 160-161, p. 230‑231, par. 177, et p. 253, par. 247). En conséquence,
aucune réparation ne peut être accordée à raison des dommages
causés par les actions desdits groupes.
83. La Cour a considéré, dans ce même arrêt, que, même si le MLC
n’était pas sous le contrôle du défendeur, ce dernier avait apporté son
soutien à ce groupe (ibid., p. 226, par. 160), et que l’entraînement dispensé
et le soutien fourni par l’Ouganda à l’ALC emportaient violation de
certaines
obligations de droit international (ibid., par. 161). Elle tiendra
compte de cette conclusion lorsqu’elle examinera les demandes de réparation
de la RDC.
84. Il revient à la Cour d’apprécier au cas par cas chaque catégorie de
dommages allégués et d’examiner si le soutien apporté par l’Ouganda au
groupe rebelle pertinent a causé de manière suffisamment directe et certaine
tel ou tel dommage. L’étendue du dommage et la réparation qui en
résulte devront être déterminées par la Cour lorsqu’elle analysera chacun
des préjudices concernés. Il en va de même pour le cas spécifique des
dommages subis à Kisangani, que la Cour analysera dans la partie III.
2. Le lien de causalité entre les faits internationalement illicites et les
préjudices subis
85. Les Parties s’opposent sur le point de savoir si la réparation doit
être limitée au préjudice directement lié à un fait internationalement illicite
ou couvrir également les conséquences indirectes d’un tel fait.
* *
86. La RDC soutient que le défendeur est tenu de réparer tous les
dommages dont il a été démontré qu’ils résultent de son comportement
internationalement illicite. Elle ajoute que l’Ouganda est tenu de réparer
l’ensemble des dommages qui découlent directement de son comportement
internationalement illicite ou d’une chaîne ininterrompue d’événements.
Selon le demandeur, l’auteur du fait internationalement illicite est
tenu de réparer tous les dommages qui n’auraient pas eu lieu si le fait
internationalement illicite n’avait pas été commis, même si des causes se
sont interposées entre le fait internationalement illicite et le dommage.
L’Ouganda serait responsable de l’ensemble des dommages, y compris
armed activities (judgment) 46
37
in abstracto that the injury attributable to the rebel groups would not
have occurred without Uganda’s support.
* *
82. The Court recalls the findings in its 2005 Judgment that the rebel
groups operating in the territory of the DRC outside of Ituri were not
under Uganda’s control, that their conduct was not attributable to it and
that Uganda was not in breach of its duty of vigilance with regard to the
illegal activities of such groups (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 226, paras. 160-
161, pp. 230‑231, para. 177 and p. 253, para. 247). Consequently, no
reparation
can be awarded for damage caused by the actions of those
groups.
83. The Court found, in the same Judgment, that, even if the MLC was
not under the Respondent’s control, the latter provided support to the
group (ibid., p. 226, para. 160), and that Uganda’s training and support
of the ALC violated certain obligations of international law (ibid.,
para. 161). The Court will take this finding into account when it considers
the DRC’s claims for reparation.
84. It falls to the Court to assess each category of alleged damage on a
case-by-case basis and to examine whether Uganda’s support of the relevant
rebel group was a sufficiently direct and certain cause of the injury.
The extent of the damage and the consequent reparation must be determined
by the Court when examining each injury concerned. The same
applies in respect of the damage suffered specifically in Kisangani, which
the Court will consider in Part III.
2. The causal nexus between the internationally wrongful acts and the
injury suffered
85. The Parties differ on whether reparation should be limited to the
injury directly linked to an internationally wrongful act or should also
cover the indirect consequences of that act.
* *
86. The DRC argues that the Respondent must make good any damage
demonstrated to be a consequence of its internationally wrongful
conduct. It adds that Uganda is obliged to make reparation for the entire
injury, whether it resulted directly from its internationally wrongful conduct
or was caused by an uninterrupted chain of events. In the Applicant’s
view, the perpetrator of the internationally wrongful act is bound
to make reparation for any damage that would not have occurred had the
internationally wrongful act not been committed, regardless of the existence
of intervening causes between the internationally wrongful act and
the damage. It holds Uganda responsible for all the damage inflicted,
47 activités armées (arrêt)
38
ceux découlant des actes commis par des forces irrégulières, comme le
MLC. Selon la RDC, les groupes armés rebelles, où qu’ils se trouvent,
n’auraient pas pu commettre les actes de pillage, de destruction et autres
exactions sans le soutien de l’Ouganda.
87. Le demandeur considère qu’il faut tenir compte de la prévisibilité
des dommages. Selon lui, l’Ouganda ne pouvait pas ne pas prévoir que
ses actes produiraient des dommages, et il devrait par suite être tenu à
réparation. Il ajoute que cette réparation est due, même dans l’hypothèse
où certaines causes attribuables à des tiers se seraient interposées entre le
fait internationalement illicite et le dommage.
88. L’Ouganda considère que le lien causal doit être apprécié différemment
selon l’acte internationalement illicite en cause.
89. En ce qui concerne le principe de non‑intervention, l’Ouganda
attire l’attention sur l’imputabilité des actes commis par les groupes armés
irréguliers. Il souligne que, dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a jugé que les
actes illicites commis par les différents groupes armés soutenus par l’Ouganda
ne lui étaient pas attribuables. Il fait valoir, en outre, que la RDC
n’a pas établi que le soutien de l’Ouganda à ces groupes a été la cause
directe et certaine de tel ou tel préjudice qui leur est attribuable. Même si
le défendeur admet que le soutien financier ou politique à certains groupes,
dans la mesure où il est établi, pourrait être qualifié d’illicite, il avance
qu’un tel soutien ne constituerait pas, de manière automatique et sans
qu’il soit besoin d’autres preuves, la cause directe et certaine des actes
illicites commis par ces groupes. L’Ouganda invoque l’arrêt de 2005 pour
soutenir qu’il n’était nullement établi qu’il avait créé ou qu’il contrôlait
les opérations des groupes armés, et qu’il n’était pas non plus établi que
ces groupes agissaient sur ses instructions, sous sa direction ou sous son
contrôle. Le défendeur ajoute qu’il n’avait pas de devoir de vigilance dans
le territoire congolais en dehors de l’Ituri et que, par conséquent, les
dommages
survenus dans ce territoire du fait d’autres forces ne pouvaient
pas être rattachés à un prétendu manquement de vigilance de la part de
l’Ouganda.
90. Concernant le régime d’occupation du district de l’Ituri, le défendeur
souligne qu’il incombe à la RDC de démontrer un lien de causalité
entre le manquement de l’Ouganda à ses obligations de puissance occupante
et les dommages survenus dans ce district du fait de particuliers ou
de groupes. Il ajoute que la RDC n’a pas démontré que certaines mesures
n’avaient pas été prises par l’Ouganda pour empêcher la survenance de
dommages de la part de tiers.
91. S’agissant du principe du non‑recours à la force, le défendeur
considère qu’il incombe à la RDC de démontrer un lien de causalité direct
et certain entre le fait internationalement illicite et le préjudice. Il estime
non fondée la position de la RDC, selon laquelle le lien de causalité pourrait
être établi du simple fait que les dommages ne se seraient pas produits
« n’eût été » la violation du jus ad bellum par l’Ouganda.
92. Enfin, en se référant à l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 26 février 2007
en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention
armed activities (judgment) 47
38
including that resulting from acts committed by irregular forces such as
the MLC. According to the DRC, whatever the location of the armed
rebel groups, they would not have been able to commit acts of looting,
destruction and other atrocities without support from Uganda.
87. The Applicant considers that the foreseeability of the damage
should be taken into account. In its view, Uganda could not have failed
to foresee that its acts would produce damage, and it should therefore be
required to make reparation. The DRC adds that this reparation is owed
even if certain intervening causes attributable to third parties occurred
between the internationally wrongful act and the damage.
88. Uganda contends that the causal nexus must be assessed differently
depending on the internationally wrongful act at issue.
89. As regards the principle of non-intervention,
Uganda draws attention
to the imputability of the acts committed by irregular armed groups.
It points out that the Court, in its 2005 Judgment, ruled that the wrongful
acts committed by various armed groups supported by Uganda could not
be attributed to it. It further asserts that the DRC has failed to establish
that Uganda’s support for those groups was the direct and certain cause
of a specific injury attributable to them. Although the Respondent admits
that the political or financial support provided to certain groups, to the
extent that it was established, could be characterized as wrongful, it contends
that this does not automatically and without further proof make
such support the direct and certain cause of the wrongful acts committed
by these groups. Uganda relies on the 2005 Judgment to argue that it has
in no way been established that it created those armed groups or controlled
their operations, nor has it been established that those groups
were acting on its instructions or under its direction or control. The
Respondent adds that it did not have a duty of vigilance on Congolese
territory outside Ituri and, consequently, that the damage inflicted by
other forces on that territory could not be connected to an alleged lack of
vigilance on the part of Uganda.
90. As regards the régime of occupation in the district of Ituri, the
Respondent insists that it falls to the DRC to demonstrate a causal nexus
between Uganda’s breach of its obligations as an occupying Power and
the damage inflicted in that district by individuals or groups. It adds that
the DRC has failed to show that certain measures were not taken by
Uganda to prevent damage by third parties.
91. With respect to the principle of non-use of force, the Respondent
argues that it falls to the DRC to demonstrate a direct and certain causal
nexus between the internationally wrongful act and the injury. It considers
unfounded the DRC’s position that a causal nexus can be established
simply by the fact that the damage would not have occurred “but for”
Uganda’s violation of the jus ad bellum.
92. Finally, relying on the Judgment rendered by the Court on 26 February
2007 in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the
48 activités armées (arrêt)
39
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro),
C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 234, par. 462), l’Ouganda estime
que, même s’il avait pris les mesures nécessaires, les préjudices causés par
des tiers en Ituri seraient tout de même survenus.
* *
93. La Cour ne peut octroyer une indemnisation que dans les cas où un
préjudice a été causé par le fait internationalement illicite d’un Etat. En
règle générale, il revient à la partie qui demande l’indemnisation de prouver
l’existence d’un lien de causalité entre le fait internationalement illicite
et le préjudice subi. Conformément à la jurisprudence de la Cour, une
indemnisation ne peut être accordée que s’il existe « un lien de causalité
suffisamment direct et certain entre le fait illicite … et le préjudice subi
par le demandeur, consistant en dommages de tous ordres, matériels et
moraux » (ibid.). La Cour a appliqué ce même critère dans deux autres
affaires où la question de la réparation s’est posée (Certaines activités
menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 32 ; Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du
Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 331‑332, par. 14).
Cependant, il convient de relever que le lien de causalité exigé peut varier
en fonction de la règle primaire violée, ainsi que de la nature et de l’ampleur
du préjudice.
94. En particulier, dans le cas des dommages de guerre, la question du
lien de causalité peut soulever certaines difficultés. Dans une situation de
conflit armé de longue durée et de grande ampleur, comme c’est le cas en
l’espèce, il se peut que le lien de causalité soit facilement établi entre le
comportement illicite et certains préjudices pour lesquels un demandeur
sollicite réparation. Pour certains autres préjudices, néanmoins, le lien
entre le fait internationalement illicite et le préjudice allégué peut être
insuffisamment direct et certain pour donner lieu à réparation. Il se peut
que le dommage soit attribuable à plusieurs causes concomitantes, dont
les actions ou omissions du défendeur. Il se peut également que plusieurs
actes internationalement illicites de même nature, mais attribuables à différents
acteurs, donnent lieu à un seul préjudice ou à des préjudices distincts.
La Cour examinera ces questions au moment où elles se poseront,
à la lumière des faits propres à cette affaire et des éléments de preuve
disponibles. Il revient à la Cour, en fin de compte, de décider s’il existe un
lien de causalité suffisamment direct et certain entre le fait internationalement
illicite de l’Ouganda et les différents types de dommages prétendument
subis par la RDC (voir la partie II, section A, ci‑dessus).
95. La Cour considère qu’elle devra distinguer, dans son analyse du
lien de causalité, selon que les actions ou omissions se seraient produites
en Ituri, sous occupation et contrôle effectif de l’Ouganda, ou dans
d’autres parties du territoire de la RDC, où l’Ouganda ne disposait pas
armed activities (judgment) 48
39
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina
v. Serbia and Montenegro) (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 234,
para. 462), Uganda claims that even if it had taken the necessary measures,
the damage caused by third parties in Ituri would still have
occurred.
* *
93. The Court may award compensation only when an injury is caused
by the internationally wrongful act of a State. As a general rule, it falls to
the party seeking compensation to prove the existence of a causal nexus
between the internationally wrongful act and the injury suffered. In accordance
with the jurisprudence of the Court, compensation can be awarded
only if there is “a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the
wrongful act . . . and the injury suffered by the Applicant, consisting of all
damage of any type, material or moral” (ibid.). The Court applied this
same criterion in two other cases in which the question of reparation
arose (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area
(Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2018 (I), p. 26, para. 32; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v.
Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 331-332, para. 14). However, it should be
noted that the causal nexus required may vary depending on the primary
rule violated and the nature and extent of the injury.
94. In particular, in the case of damage resulting from war, the question
of the causal nexus can raise certain difficulties. In a situation of a
long‑standing and large‑scale armed conflict, as in this case, the causal
nexus between the wrongful conduct and certain injuries for which an
applicant seeks reparation may be readily established. For some other
injuries, the link between the internationally wrongful act and the alleged
injury may be insufficiently direct and certain to call for reparation. It
may be that the damage is attributable to several concurrent causes,
including the actions or omissions of the respondent. It is also possible
that several internationally wrongful acts of the same nature, but attributable
to different actors, may result in a single injury or in several distinct
injuries. The Court will consider these questions as they arise, in light of
the facts of this case and the evidence available. Ultimately, it is for the
Court to decide if there is a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus
between Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts and the various forms of
damage allegedly suffered by the DRC (see Part II, Section A above).
95. The Court is of the opinion that, in analysing the causal nexus, it
must make a distinction between the alleged actions and omissions that
took place in Ituri, which was under the occupation and effective control
of Uganda, and those that occurred in other areas of the DRC, where
49 activités armées (arrêt)
40
nécessairement d’un contrôle effectif, en dépit du soutien qu’il avait fourni
à plusieurs groupes rebelles dont les actions ont donné lieu à des dommages.
La Cour rappelle que l’Ouganda est tenu de réparer tous les dommages
résultant du conflit survenu en Ituri, même s’ils résultent du
comportement de tiers, à moins que l’Ouganda n’ait établi, en ce qui
concerne tel ou tel préjudice, que celui-
ci n’a pas été causé par son manquement
à ses obligations de puissance occupante (voir le paragraphe 78
ci-
dessus).
96. Enfin, la Cour ne peut accepter la thèse du défendeur, tirée d’une
analogie avec l’arrêt rendu en 2007 en l’affaire relative à l’Application
de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I),
p. 234, par. 462, dans laquelle la Cour s’est expressément bornée
à
« déterminer la portée spécifique de l’obligation de prévention figurant
dans la convention sur le génocide » et n’a pas entendu « établir par sa
décision une jurisprudence générale qui serait applicable à tous les cas où
un instrument conventionnel, ou toute autre norme obligatoire,
comporte,
à la charge des Etats, une obligation de prévenir certains
actes » (ibid., p. 220‑221, par. 429). La Cour considère que les régimes
juridiques et les conditions de fait en question ne sont pas comparables,
puisque, contrairement à l’affaire susmentionnée du Génocide, il s’agit en
l’espèce d’une situation d’occupation.
97. En ce qui concerne les préjudices survenus en dehors de l’Ituri, la
Cour doit prendre en compte le fait que plusieurs de ces préjudices se sont
produits par suite d’un concours d’actions ou d’omissions attribuables à
d’autres Etats et à des groupes rebelles opérant sur le territoire congolais.
La Cour ne saurait retenir l’estimation du demandeur, selon laquelle
l’obligation de réparer à la charge de l’Ouganda s’étend à 45 % de tous les
dommages survenus dans le cadre du conflit armé sur le territoire congolais.
Cette estimation, qui est censée correspondre à la proportion du territoire
congolais qui se trouvait sous influence ougandaise, n’est fondée ni
en droit ni en fait. Cependant, l’existence de causes concomitantes du
dommage n’est pas suffisante pour exclure toute obligation de réparation
à la charge du défendeur.
98. Les Parties ont également examiné le droit applicable aux situations
où le préjudice résulte du comportement de plusieurs acteurs, qui revêt une
pertinence particulière pour les événements survenus à Kisangani, où les
dommages allégués par la RDC découlent du conflit entre les forces de
l’Ouganda et celles du Rwanda. La Cour rappelle que, lorsque plusieurs
causes attribuables à deux acteurs ou davantage sont à l’origine d’un dommage,
il est possible, dans certains cas, qu’un seul de ces acteurs soit tenu
de réparer en totalité le préjudice (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni
c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22‑23 ; voir le commentaire
de l’article 31 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de l’Etat,
Annuaire de la Commission du droit international (ACDI), 2001, vol. II,
deuxième partie, p. 97, en particulier p. 99‑100, par. 12-13, et le commentaire
de l’article 47, ibid., p. 133‑134, par. 1‑8). Dans d’autres situations, en
armed activities (judgment) 49
40
Uganda did not necessarily have effective control, notwithstanding the
support it provided to several rebel groups whose actions gave rise to
damage. The Court recalls that Uganda is under an obligation to make
reparation for all damage resulting from the conflict in Ituri, even that
resulting from the conduct of third parties, unless it has established, with
respect to a particular injury, that it was not caused by Uganda’s failure
to meet its obligations as an occupying Power (see paragraph 78 above).
96. Lastly, the Court cannot accept the Respondent’s argument based
on an analogy with the 2007 Judgment in the case concerning Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), p. 234, para. 462, in which the Court expressly “confine[d] itself
to determining the specific scope of the duty to prevent in the Genocide
Convention” and did not “purport to establish a general jurisprudence
applicable to all cases where a treaty instrument, or other binding legal
norm, includes an obligation for States to prevent certain acts” (ibid.,
pp. 220‑221, para. 429). The Court considers that the legal régimes and
factual circumstances in question are not comparable, given that, unlike
the above-mentioned
Genocide case, the present case concerns a situation
of occupation.
97. As regards the injury suffered outside Ituri, the Court must take
account of the fact that some of this damage occurred as a result of a
combination of actions and omissions attributable to other States and to
rebel groups operating on Congolese territory. The Court cannot accept
the Applicant’s assessment that Uganda is obliged to make reparation for
45 per cent of all the damage that occurred during the armed conflict on
Congolese territory. This assessment, which purports to correspond to
the proportion of Congolese territory under Ugandan influence, has no
basis in law or in fact. However, the fact that the damage was the result
of concurrent causes is not sufficient to exempt the Respondent from any
obligation to make reparation.
98. The Parties have also addressed the applicable law in situations in
which multiple actors engage in conduct that gives rise to injury, which
has particular relevance to the events in Kisangani, where the damage
alleged by the DRC arose out of conflict between the forces of Uganda
and those of Rwanda. The Court recalls that, in certain situations in
which multiple causes attributable to two or more actors have resulted in
injury, a single actor may be required to make full reparation for the
damage suffered (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 22‑23; see commentary to Article 31 of
the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International
Law Commission (YILC), 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 91, and particularly
pp. 93‑94, paras. 12‑13, as well as the commentary to Article 47, ibid.,
pp. 124‑125, paras. 1‑8). In other situations, in which the conduct of
50 activités armées (arrêt)
41
lesquelles le comportement de plusieurs acteurs a causé un préjudice, il
convient au contraire d’imputer à chacun des acteurs concernés la responsabilité
d’une part du préjudice (voir le commentaire de l’article 31, ACDI,
2001, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 100, par. 13, et le commentaire de l’article
47, ibid., p. 134, par. 5). La Cour reviendra sur cette question lorsqu’elle
examinera les demandes d’indemnisation de la RDC relatives à
Kisangani (voir les paragraphes 177, 221 et 253 ci-
dessous).
3. La nature, les formes et le montant de la réparation
99. La Cour rappellera certains principes de droit international qui
informent la détermination de la nature, des formes et du montant de la
réparation en droit de la responsabilité internationale des Etats en général
et dans les situations de violations de masse dans le cadre des conflits
armés en particulier.
100. Il est bien établi en droit international que « la violation d’un
engagement entraîne l’obligation de réparer dans une forme adéquate »
(Usine de Chorzów, compétence, arrêt nº 8, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A nº 9,
p. 21). Il s’agit d’une obligation de réparer intégralement les dommages
causés par un fait internationalement illicite (Certaines activités menées
par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 30 ; Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du
Congo), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 691, par. 161 ; Avena et
autres ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 59, par. 119 ; Projet Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros
(Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997, p. 80, par. 150).
101. Ainsi qu’indiqué à l’article 34 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat, « [l]a réparation intégrale du préjudice causé par le
fait internationalement illicite prend la forme de restitution, d’indemnisation
et de satisfaction, séparément ou conjointement ». Ainsi, l’indemnisation
peut constituer une forme appropriée de réparation, en particulier
dans les cas où la restitution s’avère matériellement impossible (Certaines
activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 31 ;
Usines de pâte à papier sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argentine c. Uruguay),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), p. 103‑104, par. 273).
102. Compte tenu des circonstances de la présente espèce, la Cour souligne
qu’il est bien établi en droit international que la réparation due à un
Etat est de nature compensatoire et qu’elle ne doit pas revêtir un caractère
punitif (Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région
frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 31). La Cour observe, par ailleurs, que toute
réparation doit, autant que possible, bénéficier à tous ceux qui ont souffert
de préjudices résultant des faits internationalement illicites (voir
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique
du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 344, par. 57).
armed activities (judgment) 50
41
multiple
actors has given rise to injury, responsibility for part of such
injury should instead be allocated among those actors (see commentary
to Article 31, YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 93, para. 13, and to Article
47, ibid., p. 125, para. 5). The Court will return to this issue in assessing
the DRC’s claims for compensation in relation to Kisangani (see
paragraphs 177, 221 and 253 below).
3. The nature, form and amount of reparation
99. The Court will recall certain international legal principles that
inform the determination of the nature, form and amount of reparation
under the law on the international responsibility of States in general and
in situations of mass violations in the context of armed conflict in particular.
100. It is well established in international law that “the breach of an
engagement involves an obligation to make reparation in an adequate
form” (Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 9, p. 21). This is an obligation to make full reparation for the
damage caused by an internationally wrongful act (Certain Activities Carried
Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 30; Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 691, para. 161; Avena and
Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 59, para. 119; Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project
(Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 80, para. 150).
101. As stated in Article 34 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility,
“[f]ull reparation for the injury caused by the internationally wrongful act
shall take the form of restitution, compensation and satisfaction, either
singly or in combination”. Thus, compensation may be an appropriate
form of reparation, particularly in those cases where restitution is
materially
impossible (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the
Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 31; Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay
(Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), pp. 103‑104,
para. 273).
102. In view of the circumstances of the present case, the Court emphasizes
that it is well established in international law that reparation due to
a State is compensatory in nature and should not have a punitive character
(Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa
Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I),
p. 26, para. 31). The Court observes, moreover, that any reparation is
intended, as far as possible, to benefit all those who suffered injury resulting
from internationally wrongful acts (see Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic
of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 344, para. 57).
42
51 activités armées (arrêt)
103. La Cour relève que les Parties ne s’accordent pas sur les principes
et les méthodologies applicables à l’évaluation des dommages résultant
d’un conflit armé et à la quantification des montants de l’indemnisation
due.
* *
104. La RDC soutient qu’elle est parvenue, de bonne foi, à une estimation
du préjudice causé, en appliquant une méthode bien définie, compte
tenu des circonstances de l’affaire, affaire dans laquelle les dommages subis
ont été massifs. Ainsi, selon la RDC, la jurisprudence de la Cour n’exige
pas une évaluation exacte du préjudice causé dans de telles circonstances.
Le demandeur met en cause le besoin allégué par le défendeur du calcul
d’un quantum en apportant la preuve de chaque préjudice spécifique pour
chacune des victimes. La RDC se fonde sur l’exigence de preuves applicables
aux réclamations de masse. Selon le demandeur, une jurisprudence
internationale constante vient à l’appui de la thèse selon laquelle, dans le
cadre des dommages de masse, le droit international n’exige pas, pour le
calcul de l’indemnisation, que soient établis les préjudices spécifiques causés
à chaque victime ou groupe de victimes considérés. Le demandeur
attire par ailleurs l’attention sur les difficultés qu’il y a à rassembler des
preuves. La RDC avance ainsi que, en dépit de la règle générale selon
laquelle il incombe à la partie qui allègue un fait d’en démontrer l’existence,
il sera nécessaire d’en atténuer les effets pour tenir compte des situations
où le défendeur est mieux à même de fournir les preuves des faits en
question. Le demandeur allègue que la jurisprudence internationale, en
particulier dans le contexte des préjudices de masse, a introduit une certaine
flexibilité dans l’établissement des preuves détaillées et précises. La
RDC s’appuie à cet égard sur la pratique de la Cour européenne des
droits de l’homme, de la Commission des réclamations Erythrée‑Ethiopie
(ci-
après la « CREE » ou la « Commission ») et de la CPI.
105. De son côté, l’Ouganda soutient que la Cour doit exiger un degré
de certitude élevé afin d’établir les dommages causés. Le défendeur avance
ainsi que la RDC doit démontrer les dommages, en indiquant de manière
précise les personnes ou les biens qui ont, dans des lieux et à des moments
déterminés, subi des pertes, des dommages ou des blessures. En outre,
l’Ouganda allègue que le fait que l’Ituri ait été occupé ne dispense pas la
RDC de la présentation de certains éléments de preuve.
* *
106. La Cour rappelle que « la réparation doit, autant que possible,
effacer toutes les conséquences de l’acte illicite » (Usine de Chorzów, fond,
arrêt no 13, 1928, C.P.J.I. série A no 17, p. 47). La Cour a reconnu dans
d’autres affaires que l’absence d’éléments de preuve suffisants quant à
l’étendue des dommages matériels n’exclut pas dans tous les cas l’octroi
d’une indemnisation pour ces derniers (Certaines activités menées par le
42
armed activities (judgment) 51
103. The Court notes that the Parties do not agree on the principles
and methodologies applicable to the assessment of damage resulting from
an armed conflict or to the quantification of compensation due.
* *
104. The DRC contends that it reached an estimate, in good faith, of
the damage caused, by applying a well-defined
method and taking account
of the circumstances of the case, where the damage suffered was on a
massive scale. Thus, in such circumstances, according to the DRC, the
Court’s jurisprudence does not require a precise assessment of the damage
caused. The Applicant contests the Respondent’s claim that every
injury suffered by every victim has to be specifically demonstrated in
order to calculate the quantum. The DRC relies on the standard of proof
applicable to mass claims. According to the Applicant, consistent international
jurisprudence supports the proposition that international law does
not require the specific injuries caused to each victim or group of victims
to be established in order to calculate compensation in the context of
mass claims. The Applicant also draws attention to the difficulties
involved in gathering evidence. The DRC thus argues that it will be necessary
to mitigate the effects of the general rule that it is for the party that
alleges a fact to prove its existence, in order to take account of situations
where the respondent is in a better position to provide evidence of the
facts at issue. The Applicant contends that international jurisprudence,
particularly in the context of mass injury, has introduced a certain amount
of flexibility as regards the establishment of detailed and precise evidence.
The DRC relies in this regard on the practice of the European Court of
Human Rights, the Eritrea-Ethiopia
Claims Commission (hereinafter the
“EECC”) and the ICC.
105. Uganda, for its part, contends that the Court must demand a high
degree of certainty to establish the damage caused. The Respondent thus
argues that the DRC must prove the damage, by stating precisely which
persons or property, in specific places and at specific times, incurred loss,
damage or injury. In addition, Uganda claims that the fact that Ituri was
occupied does not relieve the DRC of the obligation to submit some evidence.
* *
106. The Court recalls that “reparation must, as far as possible, wipe out
all the consequences of the illegal act” (Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment
No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, p. 47). The Court has recognized
in other cases that the absence of adequate evidence of the extent of
material damage will not, in all situations, preclude an award of compensation
for that damage (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the
43
52 activités armées (arrêt)
Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26‑27, par. 35). Bien que la Cour
reconnaisse l’existence de certaines incertitudes quant à l’étendue exacte
des préjudices causés, cela ne l’empêche pas de statuer sur le montant de
l’indemnisation. La Cour peut, à titre exceptionnel, octroyer une indemnisation
sous la forme d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités
offertes par les éléments de preuve et compte tenu de considérations
d’équité. Une telle approche peut être justifiée lorsque les éléments de
preuve permettent de conclure qu’un fait internationalement illicite a
indubitablement causé un préjudice avéré mais qu’ils ne permettent pas
une évaluation précise de l’étendue ou de l’ampleur de ce préjudice (voir
Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière
(Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I),
p. 26‑27, par. 35 ; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c.
République
démocratique du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2012 (I), p. 334, par. 21, p. 334‑335, par. 24, et p. 337, par. 33).
107. La Cour observe que, le plus souvent, lorsqu’il s’est agi d’accorder
des indemnisations dans le cas d’un large groupe de victimes qui ont
subi de graves préjudices dans des situations de conflit armé, les instances
judiciaires ou autres chargées de le faire ont recouru à l’octroi de sommes
globales, pour certaines catégories de préjudices, sur la base des éléments
de preuve mis à leur disposition. La CREE, par exemple, a exprimé les
difficultés intrinsèques auxquelles un organe judiciaire doit faire face dans
de telles situations. La Commission a admis que l’indemnisation accordée
par elle correspondait aux « dommages ayant pu être établis à un degré
suffisant de certitude grâce aux éléments de preuve disponibles » (Sentence
finale, Réclamations de dommages de l’Erythrée, décision du 17 août 2009,
Nations Unies, Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. XXVI, p. 516,
par. 2), même si les montants adjugés ne correspondaient « probablement
pas à la totalité des dommages que l’une ou l’autre des Parties ont subis en
violation du droit international » (ibid.). Elle a également reconnu que,
dans le cadre des procédures visant à réparer les préjudices touchant un
grand nombre de victimes, les institutions compétentes ont adopté des critères
d’établissement de la preuve moins rigoureux. Elles ont réduit,
en conséquence, les montants des indemnités accordées, de manière à tenir
compte des incertitudes découlant de l’application d’un critère moins strict
d’établissement de la preuve (ibid., p. 528‑529, par. 38).
108. La Cour est convaincue qu’elle doit procéder de la sorte en l’espèce.
Elle tiendra dûment compte des conclusions susmentionnées relatives
à la nature, aux formes et au montant de la réparation lorsqu’elle
considérera les différents types de dommages avancés par la RDC.
109. L’Ouganda fait valoir que les principes pertinents de droit international
en matière d’indemnisation interdiraient d’exiger d’un Etat responsable
qu’il verse une indemnité supérieure à sa capacité de paiement.
La RDC considère, en revanche, que « la hauteur de la réparation ne doit
pas être influencée par … la situation de l’auteur du fait illicite » et qu’elle
devrait dépendre exclusivement du préjudice causé.
43
armed activities (judgment) 52
Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26-27, para. 35). While the Court recognizes
that there is some uncertainty about the exact extent of the damage caused,
this does not preclude it from determining the amount of compensation.
The Court may, on an exceptional basis, award compensation in the form
of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence
and taking account of equitable considerations. Such an approach may be
called for where the evidence leaves no doubt that an internationally wrongful
act has caused a substantiated injury, but does not allow a precise evaluation
of the extent or scale of such injury (see Certain Activities Carried
Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26‑27, para. 35;
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the
Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 334, para. 21,
pp. 334‑335, para. 24 and p. 337, para. 33).
107. The Court observes that, in most instances, when compensation
has been granted in cases involving a large group of victims who have
suffered serious injury in situations of armed conflict, the judicial or other
bodies concerned have awarded a global sum, for certain categories of
injury, on the basis of the evidence at their disposal. The EECC, for
example, noted the intrinsic difficulties faced by judicial bodies in such
situations. It acknowledged that the compensation it awarded reflected
“the damage that could be established with sufficient certainty through
the available evidence” (Final Award, Eritrea’s Damages Claims, Decision
of 17 August 2009, United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral
Awards (RIAA), Vol. XXVI, p. 516, para. 2), even though the awards
“probably d[id] not reflect the totality of damage that either Party suffered
in violation of international law” (ibid.). It also recognized that,
in the context of proceedings aimed at providing compensation for injuries
affecting large numbers of victims, the relevant institutions have
adopted less rigorous standards of proof. They have accordingly reduced
the levels of compensation awarded in order to account for the uncertainties
that flow from applying a lower standard of proof (ibid., pp. 528‑529,
para. 38).
108. The Court is convinced that it should proceed in this manner in
the present case. It will take due account of the above-mentioned
conclusions
regarding the nature, form and amount of reparation when considering
the different forms of damage claimed by the DRC.
109. Uganda submits that the relevant principles of international law
concerning compensation preclude requiring a responsible State to pay
compensation that exceeds its financial capacity. The DRC, however,
considers that “the amounts awarded should not be influenced by . . . the
situation of the perpetrator of the wrongful act” and that they should
depend on the injury alone.
44
53 activités armées (arrêt)
110. La Cour rappelle à cet égard que la CREE a soulevé la question de
savoir si la détermination du montant de l’indemnisation devrait prendre en
compte le fardeau financier imposé à l’Etat responsable, eu égard à sa situation
économique, en particulier s’il y a des doutes concernant la capacité de
cet Etat à payer la somme sans mettre en cause sa capacité à satisfaire les
besoins essentiels de son peuple (CREE, Sentence finale, Réclamations de
dommages de l’Erythrée, décision du 17 août 2009, RSA, vol. XXVI,
p. 522‑524, par. 19-22). La Cour se penchera plus loin sur la question de la
capacité financière de l’Etat défendeur (voir le paragraphe 407 ci-
dessous).
C. La preuve
111. Ayant établi les principes et les règles applicables à l’évaluation
des réparations en l’espèce, la Cour examinera la question de la preuve
pour déterminer qui en a la charge, le critère d’établissement de la preuve
et la valeur probante à accorder à certains types de preuves.
* *
112. La RDC affirme qu’elle n’est pas tenue de démontrer, comme le
prétend l’Ouganda, chacun des préjudices subis dans le conflit armé. Le
demandeur estime que l’Ouganda cherche à imposer un régime juridique
de la preuve plus exigeant que celui qui doit s’appliquer au stade des réparations.
Il ajoute qu’il convient également, à ce stade, de prendre en
compte les circonstances de l’affaire et les difficultés rencontrées par les
Parties en ce domaine dans une situation de conflit armé. La RDC rappelle
la jurisprudence de la Cour, selon laquelle, dans certaines situations,
le défendeur peut être mieux placé pour établir certains faits. Elle demande
ainsi à la Cour d’appréhender l’évaluation des dommages d’une manière
qui ne soit ni mécanique ni rigide.
113. L’Ouganda, pour sa part, attire l’attention de la Cour sur l’obligation
incombant à la RDC de prouver les pertes, les dommages ou les blessures
subis par des personnes ou des biens spécifiques, dans des lieux et à
des moments précis. Selon le défendeur, il découle de l’arrêt de 2005, en
particulier de son paragraphe 260 (voir le paragraphe 71 ci‑dessus), que la
RDC doit démontrer que les dommages subis sont une conséquence d’un
des faits internationalement illicites dont l’Ouganda a été reconnu responsable,
en apportant des preuves que le dommage résulte d’actions spécifiques
attribuables à l’Ouganda. Selon le défendeur, il revient à la RDC
d’apporter la preuve du préjudice exact, du lien de causalité et de l’attribution
à l’Ouganda de chaque action spécifique donnant lieu au préjudice.
* *
114. La Cour, pour accorder une indemnisation à la RDC, ne considère
pas que celle-
ci, comme l’affirme l’Ouganda, doit prouver l’existence
du préjudice exact subi par telle personne ou tel bien dans un lieu et à un
44
armed activities (judgment) 53
110. The Court recalls in this regard that the EECC raised the question
whether, in determining the amount of compensation, account should be
taken of the financial burden imposed on the responsible State, given its
economic condition, in particular if there is any doubt about the State’s
capacity to pay without compromising its ability to meet its people’s basic
needs (EECC, Final Award, Eritrea’s Damages Claims, Decision of
17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, pp. 522‑524, paras. 19‑22). The Court
will further address the question of the respondent State’s financial capacity
below (see paragraph 407).
C. Questions of Proof
111. Having established the principles and rules applicable to the assessment
of reparations in the present case, the Court will examine questions
of proof in order to determine who bears the burden of proving a fact, the
standard of proof, and the weight to be given to certain kinds of evidence.
* *
112. The DRC maintains that it is not required, as Uganda claims, to
prove each injury sustained in the armed conflict. According to the Applicant,
Uganda is seeking to impose a more exacting standard of proof
than is required at the reparations stage. It adds that, at this stage, the
circumstances of the case and the difficulties encountered by the Parties in
gathering evidence in a situation of armed conflict should also be taken
into account. The DRC recalls the Court’s jurisprudence, according to
which, in some situations, the respondent is in a better position to establish
certain facts. It therefore asks the Court to adopt an approach to the
valuation of harm that is neither mechanical nor rigid.
113. Uganda, for its part, draws the attention of the Court to the
DRC’s obligation to prove the loss, damage or injury suffered by specific
persons or property, in specific places and at specific times. According to
the Respondent, it follows from the 2005 Judgment, in particular paragraph
260 thereof (see paragraph 71 above), that the DRC must demonstrate
that the injury suffered was the consequence of the internationally
wrongful acts for which Uganda was found responsible, by providing evidence
that the injury was a result of specific actions attributable to
Uganda. According to the Respondent, it falls to the DRC to provide
proof of the exact injury, the causal nexus, and that each specific action
that gave rise to injury is attributable to Uganda.
* *
114. The Court does not accept Uganda’s contention that the DRC
must prove the exact injury suffered by a specific person or property in a
given location and at a given time for it to award reparation. In cases of
54 activités armées (arrêt)
45
moment donnés. Dans le cas de dommages massifs, comme dans la présente
affaire, la Cour peut parvenir à une estimation de l’étendue des
dommages sur laquelle devra être fondée l’indemnisation sans avoir
nécessairement à identifier le nom de chaque victime ou des informations
spécifiques sur chaque bâtiment ou autre bien détruit pendant le conflit.
1. La charge de la preuve
115. La Cour commencera par rappeler les règles régissant la charge de la
preuve. Conformément à sa jurisprudence bien établie en la matière, « en règle
générale, il appartient à la partie qui allègue un fait au soutien de ses prétentions
de faire la preuve de l’existence de ce fait » (Certaines activités menées
par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 33 ; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo
(République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 660, par. 54). Il revient donc, en principe, à la
partie qui allègue un fait de « soumettre les éléments de preuve pertinents
pour étayer sa thèse » (Usines de pâte à papier sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argentine
c. Uruguay), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), p. 71, par. 163).
116. Cependant, il ne s’agit pas, selon la Cour, d’une règle absolue,
applicable en toutes circonstances. Il existe des situations où il faudrait
« faire preuve de souplesse dans l’application de cette règle générale et,
notamment, [où] le défendeur pourrait être mieux à même d’établir certains
faits » (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République
démocratique du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I),
p. 332, par. 15). La Cour « ne saurait cependant présumer qu’un élément
de preuve qui n’est pas disponible aurait, s’il avait été produit, plaidé en
faveur de la cause de l’une des parties ; et encore moins ne saurait‑elle
présumer l’existence d’un élément de preuve qui n’a pas été produit » (Différend
frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras ;
Nicaragua (intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 399, par. 63).
117. La Cour a souligné ainsi que « [l]’établissement de la charge de la
preuve dépend, en réalité, de l’objet et de la nature de chaque différend soumis
à la Cour ; il varie en fonction de la nature des faits qu’il est nécessaire
d’établir pour les besoins du jugement de l’affaire » (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo
(République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 660, par. 54). Il appartient à la Cour d’apprécier
l’ensemble des éléments de preuve produits par les parties et dûment soumis
au débat contradictoire, en vue de parvenir à ses conclusions. Il se peut que,
en fonction des circonstances de l’espèce, « aucune des parties ne supporte à
elle seule la charge de la preuve » (ibid., p. 661, par. 56).
118. Pour ce qui concerne les préjudices qui se sont produits dans le
district de l’Ituri, qui se trouvait sous occupation de l’Ouganda, la Cour
rappelle la conclusion à laquelle elle est arrivée au paragraphe 78 ci-
dessus.
Dans cette phase de la procédure, il incombe à l’Ouganda d’établir que tel
ou tel préjudice subi par la RDC en Ituri n’a pas été causé par son manquement
à ses obligations de puissance occupante.
armed activities (judgment) 54
45
mass injuries like the present one, the Court may form an appreciation of
the extent of damage on which compensation should be based without
necessarily having to identify the names of all victims or specific information
about each building or other property destroyed in the conflict.
1. The burden of proof
115. The Court will begin by recalling the rules governing the burden of
proof. In accordance with its well-established
jurisprudence on the matter,
“as a general rule, it is for the party which alleges a fact in support of its
claims to prove the existence of that fact” (Certain Activities Carried Out
by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 33; Ahmadou Sadio
Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54). In principle, therefore,
it falls to the party alleging a fact to “submit the relevant evidence to
substantiate its claims” (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v.
Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 71, para. 163).
116. However, the Court considers that this is not an absolute rule
applicable in all circumstances. There are situations where “this general
rule would have to be applied flexibly . . . and, in particular, [where] the
Respondent may be in a better position to establish certain facts”
(Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the
Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 332,
para. 15). The Court “cannot however apply a presumption that evidence
which is unavailable would, if produced, have supported a particular party’s
case; still less a presumption of the existence of evidence which has
not been produced” (Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/
Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992,
p. 399, para. 63).
117. The Court has thus underlined that “[t]he determination of the burden
of proof is in reality dependent on the subject-matter
and the nature of
each dispute brought before the Court; it varies according to the type of facts
which it is necessary to establish for the purposes of the decision of the case”
(Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the
Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54). It is
for the Court to evaluate all the evidence produced by the parties and which
has been duly subjected to their scrutiny, with a view to forming its conclusions.
Depending on the circumstances of the case, it may be that “neither
party is alone in bearing the burden of proof” (ibid., p. 661, para. 56).
118. As regards the damage that occurred in the district of Ituri, which
was under Ugandan occupation, the Court recalls the conclusion it
reached in paragraph 78 above. In this phase of the proceedings, it is for
Uganda to establish that a particular injury suffered by the DRC in Ituri
was not caused by its failure to meet its obligations as an occupying
Power.
46
55 activités armées (arrêt)
119. En revanche, pour ce qui est des préjudices qui ont eu lieu sur le
territoire congolais, hors Ituri, et bien que l’existence d’un conflit armé
puisse rendre plus difficile l’établissement des faits, la Cour estime que
« c’est en définitive au plaideur qui cherche à établir un fait qu’incombe la
charge de la preuve ; lorsque celle‑ci n’est pas produite, une conclusion
peut être rejetée dans l’arrêt comme insuffisamment démontrée » (Frontière
terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun
c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 319,
par. 101 ; voir aussi Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), compétence et recevabilité,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 437, par. 101).
2. Le standard de la preuve et le degré de certitude
120. Dans sa pratique, la Cour a eu recours à divers critères d’appréciation
de la preuve (voir Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 129‑130, par. 209‑210 ;
Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1949, p. 17). Selon la Cour, le standard de la preuve peut varier
au cas par cas et en fonction de la gravité des actes allégués (C.I.J.
Recueil 2007 (I), p. 130, par. 210). La Cour a également reconnu qu’un
Etat qui n’est pas en mesure d’apporter la preuve directe de certains faits
doit pouvoir « recourir plus largement aux présomptions de fait, aux
indices ou preuves circonstancielles » (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni
c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 18).
121. La Cour s’est déjà penchée sur le poids qu’il convient d’accorder
à certains éléments de preuve. Elle rappelle, comme elle l’a souligné dans
son arrêt de 2005, qu’elle
« traitera avec prudence les éléments de preuve spécialement établis
aux fins de l’affaire ainsi que ceux provenant d’une source unique.
Elle leur préférera des informations fournies à l’époque des événements
par des personnes ayant eu de ceux-
ci une connaissance
directe. Elle prêtera une attention toute particulière aux éléments
de preuve dignes de foi attestant de faits ou de comportements
défavorables
à l’Etat que représente celui dont émanent lesdits éléments
(Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-
ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1986, p. 41, par. 64). La Cour accordera également du poids
à des éléments de preuve dont l’exactitude n’a pas, même avant le
présent différend, été contestée par des sources impartiales. » (Arrêt
de 2005, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 201, par. 61 ; voir également Application
de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2007 (I), p. 130‑131, par. 213.)
46
armed activities (judgment) 55
119. However, as regards damage that occurred on Congolese territory
outside Ituri, and although the existence of armed conflict may make it
more difficult to establish the facts, the Court is of the view that “[u]ltimately
. . . it is the litigant seeking to establish a fact who bears the burden
of proving it; and in cases where evidence may not be forthcoming, a
submission may in the judgment be rejected as unproved” (Land and
Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v.
Nigeria),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 319,
para. 101; see also Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 437, para. 101).
2. The standard of proof and degree of certainty
120. In practice, the Court has applied various criteria to assess evidence
(see Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 129‑130, paras. 209-210;
Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1949, p. 17). The Court considers that the standard of proof may
vary from case to case and may depend on the gravity of the acts alleged
(I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 130, para. 210). The Court has also recognized
that a State that is not in a position to provide direct proof of certain
facts “should be allowed a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact
and circumstantial evidence” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 18).
121. The Court has previously addressed the question of the weight to
be given to certain kinds of evidence. The Court recalls, as noted in its
2005 Judgment, that it
“will treat with caution evidentiary materials specially prepared for
this case and also materials emanating from a single source. It will
prefer contemporaneous evidence from persons with direct knowledge.
It will give particular attention to reliable evidence acknowledging
facts or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the
person making them (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 41. para. 64). The Court will also
give weight to evidence that has not, even before this litigation, been
challenged by impartial persons for the correctness of what it contains.”
(2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 201, para. 61; see also
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 130‑131, para. 213.)
56 activités armées (arrêt)
47
122. La Cour a précisé, à propos des rapports émanant d’organes officiels
ou indépendants, que leur valeur
« dépend, entre autres, 1) de la source de l’élément de preuve (par
exemple, la source est-elle partiale ou neutre ?), 2) de la manière dont
il a été obtenu (par exemple, est‑il tiré d’un rapport de presse anonyme
ou résulte-t-il d’une procédure judiciaire ou quasi judiciaire
minutieuse ?) et 3) de sa nature ou de son caractère (s’agit-il de déclarations
contraires aux intérêts de leurs auteurs, de faits admis ou
incontestés ?) » (Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I), p. 76, par. 190).
123. La Cour considère qu’il est utile de se référer à la pratique d’autres
organismes internationaux qui se sont penchés sur la détermination de la
réparation pour ce qui est des violations de masse dans le cadre d’un
conflit armé. La CREE a reconnu les difficultés associées aux questions de
la preuve en examinant les demandes d’indemnisation pour des violations
des obligations découlant du jus in bello et du jus ad bellum commises
dans le contexte d’un conflit armé international. Alors qu’elle exigeait
« des preuves claires et convaincantes pour établir qu’un dommage s’est
produit », la CREE a noté que, si le même standard élevé était exigé pour
la quantification du préjudice, cela conduirait à l’échec de toute réparation.
Elle a donc retenu une « preuve moins rigoureuse » aux fins de la
quantification (CREE, Sentence finale, Réclamations de dommages de
l’Erythrée, décision du 17 août 2009, RSA, vol. XXVI, p. 528, par. 36). En
outre, dans son ordonnance en réparation dans l’affaire Katanga, qui
porte sur des faits qui se sont produits dans le cadre du même conflit
armé que celui en cause en l’espèce, la CPI a tenu compte de ce que « les
Demandeurs ne sont pas toujours en mesure d’apporter des éléments de
preuve documentaires à l’appui de tous les préjudices allégués au vu des
circonstances qui prévalent en RDC » (Le Procureur c. Germain Katanga,
affaire ICC‑01/04‑01/07, chambre de première instance II, ordonnance de
réparation en vertu de l’article 75 du Statut, 24 mars 2017, p. 41, par. 84).
124. A la lumière de ce qui précède et compte tenu du fait qu’un
nombre considérable de preuves ont été détruites ou rendues inaccessibles
au fil des années depuis le conflit armé, la Cour estime que, dans l’établissement
de la responsabilité, le niveau exigé de la preuve est plus élevé que
dans la présente phase, relative à la réparation, où une certaine flexibilité
est nécessaire.
125. La Cour relève que les éléments de preuve versés au dossier par la
RDC ne sont pas, en grande partie, suffisants pour lui permettre de déterminer
les montants de l’indemnisation due avec précision. Cependant,
compte tenu du contexte de conflit armé en l’espèce, la Cour doit prendre
en compte d’autres éléments, tels que les divers rapports d’enquête
qui figurent au dossier, notamment ceux émanant des organes des
Nations Unies. La Cour, dans son arrêt de 2005, a déjà examiné la plupart
de ces éléments de preuve et a considéré que certains des rapports de
armed activities (judgment) 56
47
122. The Court stated that the value of reports from official or independent
bodies
“depends, among other things, on (1) the source of the item of evidence
(for instance partisan, or neutral), (2) the process by which it
has been generated (for instance an anonymous press report or the
product of a careful court or court-like process), and (3) the quality
or character of the item (such as statements against interest, and
agreed or uncontested facts)” (Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), p. 76, para. 190).
123. The Court considers it helpful to refer to the practice of other
international bodies that have addressed the determination of reparation
concerning mass violations in the context of armed conflict. The EECC
recognized the difficulties associated with questions of proof in its examination
of compensation claims for violations of obligations under the jus
in bello and jus ad bellum committed in the context of an international
armed conflict. While it required “clear and convincing evidence to establish
that damage occurred”, the EECC noted that if the same high standard
were required for quantification of the damage, it would thwart any
reparation. It therefore required “less rigorous proof” for the purposes of
quantification (EECC, Final Award, Eritrea’s Damages Claims, Decision
of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 528, para. 36). Moreover, in its
Order for Reparations in the Katanga case, which concerns acts that took
place in the course of the same armed conflict as in the present case, the
ICC was mindful of the fact that “the Applicants were not always in a
position to furnish documentary evidence in support of all of the harm
alleged, given the circumstances in the DRC” (The Prosecutor v. Germain
Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, Trial Chamber II, Order for Reparations pursuant
to Article 75 of the Statute, 24 March 2017, p. 38, para. 84).
124. In light of the foregoing and given that a large amount of evidence
has been destroyed or rendered inaccessible over the years since the
armed conflict, the Court is of the view that the standard of proof required
to establish responsibility is higher than in the present phase on reparation,
which calls for some flexibility.
125. The Court notes that the evidence included in the case file by the
DRC is, for the most part, insufficient to reach a precise determination of
the amount of compensation due. However, given the context of armed
conflict in this case, the Court must take account of other evidence, such
as the various investigative reports in the case file, in particular those
from United Nations organs. The Court already examined much of
this evidence in its 2005 Judgment and took the view that some of the
United Nations reports, as well as the final report of the Judicial Com-
57 activités armées (arrêt)
48
l’ONU, ainsi que le rapport final de la commission d’enquête judiciaire
chargée d’examiner les allégations relatives à l’exploitation illégale des ressources
naturelles et autres formes de richesses en RDC établie en 2001
(ci-
après le « rapport de la commission Porter »), avaient une valeur probante
lorsqu’ils étaient corroborés par d’autres sources dignes de foi
(C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 249, par. 237). Bien que la Cour ait noté, en 2005,
qu’il n’était pas nécessaire qu’elle procède à des constatations de fait pour
chaque incident individuel, ces documents font néanmoins état d’un
nombre considérable d’incidents, sur lesquels la Cour peut maintenant
s’appuyer pour évaluer les dommages et le montant de l’indemnisation
due. La Cour prendra aussi en considération des éléments de preuve plus
récents, en particulier le « rapport du projet Mapping concernant les violations
les plus graves des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire
commises entre mars 1993 et juin 2003 sur le territoire de la
République démocratique du Congo », qui a été publié en 2010 par le
Haut-Commissariat
des Nations Unies aux droits de l’homme (ci‑après
le « rapport Mapping »). La Cour prendra également en compte les rapports
des experts qu’elle a elle‑même désignés, lorsqu’elle les considérera
pertinents.
126. Dans les circonstances de l’espèce et compte tenu du contexte et
du temps qui s’est écoulé depuis les faits en question, la Cour considère
que l’appréciation de l’existence et de l’étendue des préjudices doit se faire
dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les éléments de preuve. Il peut
s’agir des éléments de preuve versés au dossier par les Parties ou de ceux
qui figurent dans les rapports présentés par les experts désignés par la
Cour ainsi que dans des rapports de l’ONU et d’autres organismes nationaux
et internationaux. Enfin, la Cour relève que, dans de telles circonstances,
l’appréciation de l’existence et de l’étendue des dommages doit
être fondée sur des estimations raisonnables prenant en compte le point
de savoir si une conclusion de fait donnée est étayée par plusieurs sortes
de preuve (« un certain nombre d’indices concordants ») (voir Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua
c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 83,
par. 152).
D. Les types de dommages objets de la réparation
127. Les Parties sont en désaccord sur le point de savoir quels sont
les types de dommages qui entrent dans le champ de l’arrêt de 2005 et que
la Cour devra donc prendre en compte lors de la présente phase de la
procédure.
* *
128. La RDC soutient que les faits internationalement illicites attribuables
à l’Ouganda et l’existence des dommages en résultant ont déjà été
établis par la Cour dans son arrêt de 2005 et que la présente phase de la
armed activities (judgment) 57
48
mission of Inquiry into Allegations into Illegal Exploitation of Natural
Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the DRC established in 2001
(hereinafter the “Porter Commission Report”), had probative value when
corroborated by other reliable sources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 249,
para. 237). Although the Court noted in 2005 that it was not necessary
for it to make findings of fact for each individual incident, these documents
nevertheless record a considerable number of incidents on which
the Court can now rely in evaluating the damage and the amount of compensation
due. The Court will also take more recent evidence into account,
notably the “Report of the Mapping Exercise documenting the most serious
violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed
within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
between March 1993 and June 2003”, which was published in 2010 by the
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
(hereinafter the “Mapping Report”). The Court will also take account of
the reports by the Court‑appointed experts, where it considers them to be
relevant.
126. In the circumstances of the case and given the context and the
time that has elapsed since the facts in question occurred, the Court considers
that it must assess the existence and extent of the damage within
the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence. This may be evidence
included in the case file by the Parties, in the reports submitted by the
Court-appointed
experts or in reports of the United Nations and other
national or international bodies. Finally, the Court considers that, in
such circumstances, an assessment of the existence and extent of the damage
must be based on reasonable estimates, taking into account whether
a particular finding of fact is supported by more than one source of evidence
(“a number of concordant indications”) (see Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 83, para. 152).
D. The Forms of Damage Subject to Reparation
127. The Parties disagree about which forms of damage fall within the
scope of the 2005 Judgment and thus must be taken into account by the
Court during this phase of the proceedings.
* *
128. The DRC argues that the internationally wrongful acts attributable
to Uganda and the existence of the resulting injuries have already
been established by the Court in its 2005 Judgment and that the present
58 activités armées (arrêt)
49
procédure ne porte que sur l’étendue de ces dommages, en vue d’évaluer
le montant de la réparation.
129. La RDC affirme qu’il n’est pas raisonnable d’interpréter l’arrêt de
2005 comme excluant de la présente phase des réparations les types de
dommages n’ayant pas été expressément visés par ledit arrêt. Ainsi, selon
le demandeur, les viols et les actes de violence sexuelle, qui ne sont pas
cités en tant que tels dans l’arrêt de 2005, entrent dans le cadre dudit
arrêt. Il en irait de même, selon lui, pour d’autres types de dommages, tels
que le dommage macroéconomique ou le pillage de certains minerais qui
n’ont pas été expressément mentionnés dans cette décision.
130. Bien qu’il admette sa responsabilité pour les faits internationalement
illicites établis par la Cour, l’Ouganda considère que l’arrêt de 2005
contient certaines limitations temporelles, géographiques et matérielles. Il
estime que son obligation de réparer ne concerne que les types de dommages
expressément visés dans l’arrêt de 2005. Le défendeur s’oppose à ce
que la RDC puisse, à ce stade tardif, faire entrer certains actes, comme le
viol ou les violences sexuelles, dans le cadre général énoncé par l’arrêt de
2005. L’Ouganda invite ainsi la Cour à limiter la portée du présent arrêt
aux seuls types de dommages qui sont expressément visés dans l’arrêt
de 2005.
* *
131. La Cour a déjà, dans son arrêt de 2005, déterminé que l’Ouganda
était tenu de réparer les préjudices causés à la RDC par plusieurs actions
et omissions qui lui sont attribuables. La Cour considère que sa tâche, au
stade actuel de la procédure, est de se prononcer sur la nature et le
montant
des réparations que l’Ouganda est tenu d’accorder à la RDC,
pour les types de dommages établis en 2005 et qui lui sont attribuables.
En effet, l’objectif de la Cour, dans son arrêt de 2005, n’était pas de déterminer
avec précision les différents préjudices subis par la RDC. Il suffit
que les préjudices particuliers invoqués par le demandeur relèvent des
catégories établies en 2005 (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 241, par. 211, p. 245,
par. 220, p. 252‑253, par. 246‑250, p. 257, par. 259, et p. 280‑281, par. 345,
points 3) et 4) du dispositif). Ainsi que la Cour l’a fait dans ses affaires
précédentes relatives à la réparation, elle déterminera si chacune des
demandes entre dans le champ de ses conclusions antérieures en matière
de responsabilité (voir Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée
c. République démocratique du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2012 (I), p. 332‑333, par. 17, et p. 343, par. 53).
III. Indemnisation demandée par la RDC
132. La RDC demande à être indemnisée de dommages aux personnes
(section A), de dommages aux biens (section B), de dommages aux
ressources
naturelles (section C) et d’un dommage macroéconomique
armed activities (judgment) 58
49
phase of the proceedings concerns only the extent of those injuries, with a
view to evaluating the amount of the reparation.
129. The DRC asserts that it is not reasonable to interpret the
2005 Judgment as excluding from this reparation phase the forms of damage
not expressly mentioned therein. Thus, in the Applicant’s view, incidents
of rape and sexual violence, which are not referred to as such in the
2005 Judgment, fall within the framework of that Judgment, as do other
forms of damage, such as macroeconomic damage and the plundering of
certain minerals not expressly mentioned therein.
130. While Uganda admits its responsibility for the internationally
wrongful acts established by the Court, it contends that the 2005 Judgment
contains certain temporal, geographic and subject‑matter limitations.
It considers that its obligation to make reparation concerns only
the forms of damage expressly set out in the 2005 Judgment. In the
Respondent’s view, the DRC cannot, at this late stage, introduce into the
general framework of the 2005 Judgment acts such as rape or sexual violence.
Uganda thus asks the Court to limit the scope of the present Judgment
to only those forms of damage expressly mentioned in the 2005
Judgment.
* *
131. The Court has already determined, in its 2005 Judgment, that
Uganda is under an obligation to make reparation for the injury caused
to the DRC by several actions and omissions attributable to it. The Court
is of the opinion that its task, at this stage of the proceedings, is to rule
on the nature and amount of reparation owed to the DRC by Uganda for
the forms of damage established in 2005 that are attributable to it. Indeed,
the Court’s objective in its 2005 Judgment was not to determine the precise
injuries suffered by the DRC. It is sufficient for an injury claimed by
the Applicant to fall within the categories established in 2005
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211, p. 245, para. 220, pp. 252‑253,
paras. 246‑250, p. 257, para. 259, and pp. 280‑281, para. 345, subparas.
(3)
and (4) of the operative part). As the Court has done in previous cases on
reparation, it will determine whether each of the claims for reparation
falls within the scope of its prior findings on liability (cf. Ahmadou Sadio
Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 332‑333, para. 17 and
p. 343, para. 53).
III. Compensation Claimed by the DRC
132. The DRC claims compensation for damage to persons (Section
A), damage to property (Section B), damage to natural resources
(Section C) and for macroeconomic damage (Section D). The Court will
59 activités armées (arrêt)
50
(section D). La Cour examinera ces demandes au regard des considérations
générales exposées ci-
dessus.
A. Dommages aux personnes
133. Dans le dispositif de l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 2005, la Cour a dit
que,
« par le comportement de ses forces armées, qui [avaie]nt commis des
meurtres et des actes de torture et autres formes de traitement inhumain
à l’encontre de la population civile congolaise, [avaie]nt détruit des villages
et des bâtiments civils, [avaie]nt manqué d’établir une distinction
entre cibles civiles et cibles militaires et de protéger la population civile
lors d’affrontements avec d’autres combattants, [avaie]nt entraîné des
enfants-soldats,
[avaie]nt incité au conflit ethnique
et [avaie]nt manqué
de prendre des mesures visant à y mettre un terme, et pour n’avoir pas,
en tant que puissance occupante, pris de mesures visant à respecter et à
faire respecter les droits de l’homme et le droit international humanitaire
dans le district de l’Ituri, la République de l’Ouganda a[vait] violé
les obligations lui incombant en vertu du droit international relatif aux
droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire » (C.I.J. Recueil
2005, p. 280, par. 345, point 3) du dispositif) ;
et que
« la République de l’Ouganda, en se livrant à des actions militaires à
l’encontre de la République démocratique du Congo sur le territoire
de celle-
ci, en occupant l’Ituri et en soutenant activement, sur les
plans militaire, logistique, économique et financier, des forces irrégulières
qui opéraient sur le territoire congolais, a[vait] violé le principe
du non-recours
à la force dans les relations internationales et le principe
de non‑intervention » (ibid., point 1) du dispositif).
* *
134. La RDC réclame une indemnisation totale d’au moins
4 350 421 800 dollars des Etats‑Unis à raison des dommages aux personnes
causés par les faits internationalement illicites de l’Ouganda. Elle
définit à cette fin cinq types de dommages : pertes en vies humaines
(4 045 646 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis), préjudices corporels et mutilations
(54 464 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis), viols et violences sexuelles
(33 458 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis), recrutement et déploiement d’enfants-soldats
(30 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis) et déplacements de population
(186 853 800 dollars des Etats‑Unis).
1. Pertes en vies humaines
135. La RDC demande à être indemnisée de la perte de 180 000 vies
humaines au sein de la population civile, ainsi que de la mort de
armed activities (judgment) 59
50
examine these claims on the basis of the general considerations described
above.
A. Damage to Persons
133. In the operative part of its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that
Uganda
“by the conduct of its armed forces, which committed acts of killing,
torture and other forms of inhumane treatment of the Congolese civilian
population, destroyed villages and civilian buildings, failed to
distinguish between civilian and military targets and to protect the
civilian population in fighting with other combatants, trained child
soldiers, incited ethnic conflict and failed to take measures to put an
end to such conflict; as well as by its failure, as an occupying Power,
to take measures to respect and ensure respect for human rights and
international humanitarian law in Ituri district, violated its obligations
under international human rights law and international humanitarian
law” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of
the operative part);
and
“that the Republic of Uganda, by engaging in military activities
against the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the latter’s territory,
by occupying Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic,
economic and financial support to irregular forces having operated
on the territory of the DRC, violated the principle of non‑use of force
in international relations and the principle of non‑intervention” (ibid.,
subpara. (1) of the operative part).
* *
134. The DRC claims a total of at least US$4,350,421,800 in compensation
for damage to persons caused by the internationally wrongful acts
of Uganda. The DRC divides this claim by reference to five forms of
damage: loss of life (US$4,045,646,000), injuries and mutilations
(US$54,464,000), rape and sexual violence (US$33,458,000), recruitment
and deployment of child soldiers (US$30,000,000), as well as displacement
of populations (US$186,853,800).
1. Loss of life
135. The DRC claims compensation for the loss of 180,000 civilian
lives. To this, the DRC adds a claim for the loss of the lives of 2,000 mem-
60 activités armées (arrêt)
51
2000 membres des forces armées congolaises qui auraient été tués dans
des combats contre l’armée ougandaise ou des groupes armés soutenus
par l’Ouganda. Pour justifier le premier nombre, elle se fonde sur des
enquêtes sur la mortalité et d’autres estimations effectuées par des organisations
non gouvernementales, en particulier sur un rapport établi par
l’International Rescue Committee (ci-
après l’« IRC ») et une étude menée
par l’Association pour le développement de la recherche appliquée en
sciences sociales (ci‑après l’« ADRASS »). Les analyses en question visent
à évaluer la « surmortalité » en comparant le nombre total observé ou calculé
de morts survenues durant le conflit en RDC avec le taux de mortalité
des années antérieures au conflit. L’IRC estime à 3,9 millions les
« morts en surnombre » qui se sont produites pendant la période pertinente,
soit entre 1998 et 2003, et l’ADRASS à 200 000.
136. La RDC part de l’estimation de l’IRC, qu’elle arrondit à 4 millions.
Elle divise ensuite ce nombre par 10, « [a]u vu de la prudence qu’il
convient d’observer dans le cadre d’une procédure judiciaire », et parvient
à une « estimation minimale » de 400 000 victimes civiles. Reconnaissant
que l’Ouganda ne devrait pas être tenu pour responsable de chaque
mort de civil causée par le conflit armé, elle applique ensuite un facteur
de 0,45 correspondant à la part de responsabilité qu’elle lui attribue. Elle
parvient ainsi à un nombre de 180 000 morts de civils attribuables
à l’Ouganda.
La RDC considère que cette approche est étayée par
le rapport
de Mme Guha-Sapir, experte désignée par la Cour, qui, sur
la base de données issues de 38 enquêtes sur la mortalité relevant
du domaine public, estime à 4 958 775 le nombre de « décès de civils
en surnombre
» dus au conflit en RDC entre 1998 et 2003. En divisant
ce chiffre par 10 et en appliquant le multiplicateur de 0,45 avancé par
la RDC, Mme Guha-Sapir parvient à une estimation de 224 449 décès
de civils en surnombre.
137. La RDC indique que, parmi ces morts, 60 000 se sont produites
en Ituri, 920 ont résulté des combats à Kisangani et 119 080 sont survenues
dans d’autres parties du pays. Elle distingue en outre deux catégories
de vies humaines perdues au sein des populations civiles : d’une part, celles
résultant de violences délibérées contre ces populations (40 000 en Ituri), de
l’autre, celles dues à d’autres manquements de l’Ouganda à ses obligations
internationales dans le contexte de l’invasion et de l’occupation de certaines
parties du territoire congolais (20 000 victimes civiles collatérales en
Ituri, 920 à Kisangani et 119 080 victimes civiles dans d’autres parties de la
RDC).
138. En réponse à une question posée par la Cour en vertu de l’article
62 de son Règlement, la RDC a produit des « fiches d’identification
de victimes » qui avaient été recueillies par une commission d’experts établie
par le Gouvernement congolais (ci‑après la « commission d’enquête
congolaise »). Ces fiches recensent 5440 personnes ayant prétendument
perdu la vie à cause du comportement illicite de l’Ouganda.
139. La RDC propose que la Cour se fonde sur des sommes forfaitaires
pour déterminer l’indemnisation due pour chaque vie humaine per-
armed activities (judgment) 60
51
bers of the Congolese armed forces who were allegedly killed in fighting
with the Ugandan army or Ugandan‑backed armed groups. To substantiate
the number of 180,000 civilian lives lost, the DRC relies on mortality
surveys and other estimates produced by non‑governmental organizations,
in particular a report by the International Rescue Committee (hereinafter
the “IRC”) and a study conducted by the Association pour le
développement de la recherche appliquée en sciences sociales (hereinafter
the “ADRASS”). These studies aim to quantify “excess mortality” by
comparing the overall observed or calculated deaths during the conflict
period with the mortality rate of previous years. While the IRC report
estimates that 3.9 million “excess deaths” occurred during the relevant
period, between 1998 and 2003, the ADRASS study arrives at a number
of 200,000 “excess deaths”.
136. The DRC proceeds from the estimate of the IRC, which it rounds
up to 4 million lives lost. It then divides this number by ten, “[g]iven the
caution which should be observed within judicial proceedings”, to arrive
at a “minimum estimate” of 400,000 civilian victims. Recognizing that
Uganda should not be held responsible for every civilian death caused by
the armed conflict, the DRC subsequently applies a multiplier of 0.45 to
reflect the share of responsibility it attributes to Uganda. The DRC
thereby arrives at a number of 180,000 civilian lives lost attributable to
Uganda. The DRC considers that this approach finds support in the
report of the Court‑appointed expert Ms Guha‑Sapir, who, based on data
from 38 mortality surveys in the public domain, estimates the “excess
civilian deaths” due to the conflict in the DRC between 1998 and 2003 to
be 4,958,775. Dividing this number by ten and applying the 0.45 multiplier
put forward by the DRC, Ms Guha‑Sapir arrives at an estimate of
224,449 “excess civilian deaths”.
137. The DRC submits that 60,000 of those deaths occurred in Ituri,
that 920 resulted from the fighting in Kisangani, and that 119,080
occurred in other parts of the country. The DRC further divides the number
of civilian lives lost into those resulting from violence that was deliberately
targeted at the civilian population (40,000 in Ituri), and those
which resulted from other breaches of Uganda’s international obligations
in the context of the invasion and occupation of parts of the DRC
(20,000 collateral civilian deaths in Ituri; 920 in Kisangani; and
119,080 civilian deaths in other areas of the DRC).
138. In response to a question posed by the Court under Article 62 of
the Rules of Court, the DRC submitted “victim identification form[s]”,
which had been collected by an expert commission established by the
Government of the DRC (hereinafter the “Congolese Commission of
Inquiry”). These forms record 5,440 individual lives allegedly lost due to
Uganda’s unlawful conduct.
139. The DRC proposes that the Court use fixed sums to determine
the compensation for each life lost. With respect to lives lost as a result of
61 activités armées (arrêt)
52
due. En ce qui concerne les morts causées par des actes de violence
délibérément dirigés contre la population civile, elle demande une indemnisation
à hauteur de 34 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne soit,
selon elle, le montant moyen des indemnités allouées par les juridictions
congolaises aux familles des victimes de crimes de guerre. Quant aux
morts de civils ne résultant pas de tels actes de violence et aux morts de
membres des forces armées congolaises, elle propose un montant forfaitaire
de 18 913 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne, établi sur la base
d’une estimation de l’âge moyen des victimes, de l’espérance de vie
moyenne et du revenu annuel moyen anticipé. S’agissant de la première
catégorie, elle fait observer que l’un des experts désignés par la Cour,
M. Senogles, n’a pas analysé la pratique prévalant au sein des juridictions
congolaises, comme il était demandé dans son mandat ; elle considère que
le montant qu’il propose, soit 30 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne,
est trop faible et non justifié. La RDC estime également que l’expert n’a
pas expliqué pourquoi la Cour devrait s’inspirer de la pratique de la
Commission d’indemnisation des Nations Unies (ci-
après la « CINU »)
plutôt que de la jurisprudence des juridictions internationales, en particulier
celles oeuvrant sur le continent africain.
140. La RDC demande à la Cour de lui adjuger au total
4 045 646 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis au titre de l’indemnisation des
pertes en vies humaines dont elle prétend qu’elles ont été causées par
l’Ouganda.
*
141. L’Ouganda affirme que les études démographiques faisant état
d’une surmortalité n’apportent pas la preuve du « préjudice exact [que la
RDC] a subi du fait des actions spécifiques de l’Ouganda », ce qu’avait
exigé la Cour dans son arrêt de 2005 (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 257, par. 260).
Il fait également valoir que tant l’étude menée par l’IRC que le rapport
élaboré par l’expert désigné par la Cour, Mme Guha-Sapir, sont sujets à
caution et présentent des failles méthodologiques. En particulier, il avance
que ces deux analyses sont fondées sur des données obsolètes et que,
appliquée aux données plus récentes publiées par la Division de la population
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour la période 1998‑2003,
la méthode de Mme Guha-Sapir n’aurait fait apparaître aucune « surmortalité
». Il relève aussi que les auteurs de l’étude de l’ADRASS considéraient
que leur chiffre de 200 000 vies perdues était probablement très
exagéré. L’Ouganda affirme encore que, pour déterminer la part de responsabilité
qu’elle lui attribue, la RDC utilise arbitrairement un facteur
de 0,45 et ne tient pas suffisamment compte du rôle joué par d’autres
acteurs.
142. L’Ouganda fait aussi référence à d’autres sources indépendantes,
notamment l’Uppsala Conflict Data Program (ci-
après l’« UCDP ») basé à
l’Université d’Uppsala et utilisé par M. Urdal, expert désigné par la Cour,
l’Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ci-
après l’« ACLED »),
armed activities (judgment) 61
52
acts of violence deliberately targeted at the civilian population, the DRC
requests US$34,000 in compensation per person. This figure allegedly
corresponds to the average amount awarded by Congolese courts to the
families of victims of war crimes. Regarding civilian deaths not resulting
from direct violence against the civilian population and deaths among
members of the Congolese armed forces, the DRC proposes that the
Court use fixed amounts based on an estimation of the average age of the
victims, average life expectancy and average anticipated yearly income,
resulting in a figure of US$18,913 per person. With respect to the first
category, the DRC notes that one of the Court‑appointed experts,
Mr. Senogles, did not analyse the prevailing practice of Congolese courts,
as stipulated in the Court’s terms of reference, and considers that his proposal
to award US$30,000 per person is unsubstantiated and too low.
The DRC is of the view that the expert failed to explain why the Court
should have recourse to the practice of the United Nations Compensation
Commission (hereinafter the “UNCC”) instead of the case law of international
courts and tribunals, especially those operating on the African continent.
140. In total, the DRC requests the Court to award US$4,045,646,000
in compensation for the loss of life which, it alleges, was caused by
Uganda.
*
141. Uganda submits that demographic studies estimating excess mortality
do not prove “the exact injury that was suffered as a result of specific
actions of Uganda”, as required by the Court in its 2005 Judgment
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 260). Uganda also maintains that the
IRC study, as well as the report by the Court‑appointed expert
Ms Guha‑Sapir, is unreliable and methodologically flawed. In particular,
Uganda argues that both studies are based on outdated data. It asserts
that if Ms Guha‑Sapir’s methodology were to be applied to the more
recent data for the period 1998-2003 published by the United Nations
Population Division, no significant “excess deaths” would have been
detected. Uganda also notes that the authors of the ADRASS study considered
that their figure of 200,000 lives lost is probably significantly overstated.
Uganda further claims that the DRC’s use of a multiplier of 0.45
to determine Uganda’s share of responsibility is arbitrary and does not
adequately take the role of other actors into account.
142. Uganda also refers to other independent sources, including the
Uppsala Conflict Data Program (hereinafter the “UCDP”) housed at
Uppsala University and used by the Court‑appointed expert Mr. Urdal,
the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (hereinafter the
62 activités armées (arrêt)
53
basé à l’Université du Sussex, et le rapport Mapping. L’Ouganda souligne
que les chiffres auxquels parviennent ces « sources neutres » sont bien inférieurs
à ceux avancés par la RDC. Il soutient également que, au regard de
la jurisprudence de la Cour et pour diverses raisons, les rapports de tierces
parties auxquels se réfère la RDC, y compris les rapports de l’ONU et
ceux d’organisations non gouvernementales, doivent être traités avec prudence.
Enfin, il fait valoir que, dans leur pratique, les juridictions internationales
exigent qu’un demandeur fournisse des preuves établissant
l’identité des personnes qui auraient été tuées, notamment leur nom ainsi
que la date, le lieu et la cause de la mort. Il affirme que la RDC ne s’est
donc pas acquittée de l’obligation qui lui incombe d’apporter la preuve du
préjudice exact qu’elle a subi du fait des actions spécifiques de l’Ouganda,
et que sa demande d’indemnisation devrait en conséquence être rejetée.
143. Pour ce qui est de la réclamation relative aux soldats congolais
tués, l’Ouganda soutient que la Cour, dans son arrêt de 2005, ne l’a pas
jugé responsable de ces morts, et que, quand bien même la RDC serait en
droit de demander à être indemnisée à ce titre, cette demande n’est pas
étayée par des éléments de preuve.
144. En ce qui concerne la valeur des vies humaines perdues du fait de
violences délibérées contre les populations civiles, l’Ouganda conteste
l’idée que le montant moyen approprié de l’indemnisation devrait être
déterminé par référence aux décisions des juridictions congolaises. Il
affirme aussi que le chiffre avancé par la RDC à cet égard n’est pas corroboré
par les documents soumis par celle‑ci. Il soutient en outre que, dans
les décisions en réparation concernant le même conflit qu’elle a rendues
récemment, la CPI a adjugé des montants nettement inférieurs à ceux prétendument
alloués par les juridictions congolaises. L’Ouganda considère
encore que les variables auxquelles la RDC recourt pour déterminer le
montant moyen de l’indemnisation à raison des morts de civils ne résultant
pas de violences délibérées ne sont pas étayées par des éléments de
preuve. Il relève en particulier que, pour calculer le revenu annuel moyen
des victimes décédées, c’est le revenu moyen réel en RDC et non le produit
intérieur brut par habitant qu’il conviendrait d’utiliser. A propos du
rapport de l’expert désigné par la Cour, M. Senogles, l’Ouganda affirme
que la pratique de la CINU en matière d’évaluation ne saurait être transposée
aux procédures entre Etats. Il soutient en outre que M. Senogles a
appliqué à mauvais escient la méthode de la CINU puisqu’il a recommandé
des montants forfaitaires fondés sur ceux des réclamations de
catégorie C de cette commission, pour lesquelles une perte individuelle
devait être démontrée par des éléments de preuve plus détaillés que ceux
qui sont disponibles dans la présente procédure.
* *
145. La Cour rappelle que, dans son arrêt de 2005, elle a dit, notamment,
que l’Ouganda avait commis des meurtres parmi la population
civile, avait manqué d’établir une distinction entre cibles civiles et cibles
armed activities (judgment) 62
53
“ACLED”) housed at the University of Sussex, and the Mapping Report.
Uganda points out that these “neutral sources” arrive at figures which are
far lower than those put forward by the DRC. It also maintains that,
under the Court’s jurisprudence and for various reasons, the reports by
third parties on which the DRC relies, including United Nations reports
and reports by non‑governmental organizations, must be treated with
caution. Finally, Uganda argues that the practice of international courts
and tribunals requires an applicant to provide evidence that proves the
identity of persons who were allegedly killed, including the person’s name
and the date, location and cause of death. Uganda asserts that the DRC
has thus failed to meet its burden of proof as to the exact injury that was
suffered as a result of specific actions of Uganda. The DRC’s request for
compensation should therefore be rejected.
143. Regarding the claim concerning the deaths of Congolese soldiers,
Uganda contends that the Court made no finding in the 2005 Judgment
that Uganda was responsible for such deaths and that, even if the DRC
were entitled to seek reparation for these alleged deaths, the claim is
unsupported by evidence.
144. Concerning the valuation of lives lost as a result of deliberate violence
against the civilian population, Uganda disputes that the appropriate
average amount of compensation should be determined by reference
to decisions of the DRC’s domestic courts. It also asserts that the figure
put forward by the DRC in this regard is not corroborated by the documents
the DRC has submitted. Moreover, Uganda maintains that in
recent reparation decisions relating to the same conflict, the ICC has
awarded amounts that are substantially lower than those allegedly
awarded by Congolese courts. Uganda also considers that the variables
used by the DRC to determine the average amount of compensation for
civilian deaths that were not the result of deliberate violence are not supported
by evidence. In particular, Uganda notes that, in calculating the
average annual income of the deceased victims, the actual average income
in the DRC should be used instead of gross domestic product per capita.
Concerning the report of the Court-appointed
expert Mr. Senogles,
Uganda argues that the valuation practice of the UNCC cannot be transposed
to inter‑State judicial proceedings. Moreover, Uganda maintains
that Mr. Senogles applied the UNCC’s methodology incorrectly by recommending
fixed amounts based on the Commission’s Category C claims,
which required more detailed evidence of individual losses than is available
in the present proceedings.
* *
145. The Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it found, inter alia,
that Uganda had committed acts of killing among the civilian population,
had failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets, had not
63 activités armées (arrêt)
54
militaires et de protéger la population civile lors d’affrontements avec
d’autres combattants et, en tant que puissance occupante, n’avait pris
aucune mesure visant à respecter et à faire respecter les droits de l’homme
et le droit international humanitaire en Ituri (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 241,
par. 211, et p. 280, par. 345, point 3) du dispositif). Elle a également dit
que l’Ouganda, par son intervention militaire illicite en RDC, avait violé
l’interdiction de l’emploi de la force énoncée au paragraphe 4 de l’article
2 de la Charte des Nations Unies (ibid., p. 227, par. 165). La Cour
réaffirme que, en principe, les pertes en vies humaines causées par ces faits
internationalement illicites font naître pour l’Ouganda l’obligation de
réparer intégralement le préjudice. Avant d’accorder une indemnisation,
la Cour doit établir la matérialité et l’étendue du préjudice subi par le
demandeur, et s’assurer qu’il existe un lien de causalité suffisamment
direct et certain entre celui-
ci et le fait internationalement illicite commis
par le défendeur.
146. Les fiches d’identification de victimes produites par la RDC (voir
le paragraphe 138 ci‑dessus) sont peu nombreuses par rapport au nombre
de vies perdues qu’avance la RDC, et ne confirment donc pas que l’Ouganda
doive réparation à raison de 180 000 morts de civils.
147. Qui plus est, dans leur grande majorité, les fiches d’identification
de victimes n’indiquent pas le nom de la personne décédée. Bien que, dans
les circonstances très particulières de la présente affaire, la Cour ne soit
pas persuadée que, comme le soutient l’Ouganda, l’identité des personnes
qui auraient été tuées doive être établie pour que ces fiches aient une quelconque
valeur probante (voir le paragraphe 114 ci-
dessus),
celles-
ci présentent
par ailleurs d’autres défauts, notamment le fait de n’être pas
accompagnées d’autres éléments d’information. Nombre d’entre elles ne
font en outre pas apparaître l’existence d’un lien de causalité suffisant
entre un comportement internationalement illicite de l’Ouganda et le préjudice
allégué, mais mentionnent au contraire d’autres acteurs comme
auteurs présumés du préjudice, notamment le Rwanda ou des groupes
armés opérant hors Ituri, des actes desquels l’Ouganda n’était pas responsable.
La Cour a fait observer dans des affaires antérieures que les dépositions
de témoins recueillies de nombreuses années après les événements
en cause, en particulier lorsqu’elles ne sont pas étayées par d’autres éléments
d’information, doivent être traitées avec prudence (Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I), p. 78‑79, par. 197
et 199 ; Différend territorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et le Honduras
dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2007 (II), p. 731, par. 244). Par conséquent, les fiches d’identification
de victimes produites par la RDC ne peuvent se voir attribuer
qu’une valeur probante très limitée pour ce qui est de parvenir à une
appréciation du nombre de morts à raison desquelles l’Ouganda doit
réparation.
148. Les études scientifiques sur lesquelles se fonde la RDC pour calculer
le nombre de « décès en surnombre », à savoir le rapport de l’IRC et
armed activities (judgment) 63
54
protected the civilian population in fighting with other combatants and,
as an occupying Power, had failed to take measures to respect and ensure
respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211 and p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3)
of the operative part). Furthermore, the Court found that Uganda,
through its unlawful military intervention in the DRC, had violated the
prohibition of the use of force as expressed in Article 2, paragraph 4, of
the United Nations Charter (ibid., p. 227, para. 165). The Court reaffirms
that, as a matter of principle, the loss of life caused by these internationally
wrongful acts gives rise to the obligation of Uganda to make full
reparation. To award compensation, the Court must determine the existence
and extent of the injury suffered by the Applicant and satisfy itself
that there exists a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the
Respondent’s internationally wrongful act and the injury suffered.
146. The victim identification forms submitted by the DRC (see paragraph
138 above) are few in number in comparison to the number of lives
lost claimed by the DRC, and thus do not support the claim that Uganda
owes reparation for 180,000 civilian deaths.
147. Moreover, a large majority of the victim identification forms do
not indicate the name of the deceased. Although, given the extraordinary
circumstances of the present case, the Court is not persuaded by Uganda’s
contention that the identity of the persons allegedly killed must be
established for these forms to have any evidentiary value (see paragraph
114 above), the victim identification forms also suffer from other
defects, in particular the fact that they are not accompanied by corroborating
documentation. Furthermore, many of the forms do not show a
sufficient causal nexus between any internationally wrongful conduct by
Uganda and the alleged harm, but rather refer to other actors as the presumed
perpetrators of such harm, including Rwanda or armed groups
operating outside Ituri, for whose actions Uganda was not responsible.
The Court has observed in previous cases that witness statements which
are collected many years after the relevant events, especially when not
supported by corroborating documentation, must be treated with caution
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I),
pp. 78‑79, paras. 197 and 199; Territorial and Maritime Dispute between
Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 731, para. 244). Consequently, the
victim identification forms submitted by the DRC can be accorded only
very limited probative value in arriving at an appreciation of the number
of deaths for which Uganda owes reparation.
148. The scientific studies relied on by the DRC to calculate the number
of “excess deaths”, namely the IRC report and the ADRASS study,
64 activités armées (arrêt)
55
l’étude de l’ADRASS, ne permettent pas d’établir l’existence d’un lien de
causalité suffisamment direct et certain. La Cour considère que, indépendamment
de leur qualité scientifique et méthodologique, les études en
question n’étaient pas destinées à recenser — et ne recensent pas — le
nombre de morts pour lesquelles il existe un lien de causalité suffisamment
direct et certain avec les faits illicites commis par l’Ouganda. Dans
son rapport, Mme Guha-Sapir estime ainsi « avec un niveau de confiance
de 95 % qu’au moins 3,2 millions de morts en surnombre ont pu être causées
par le conflit armé au cours de la période considérée », mais la Cour
ne juge pas convaincante l’explication qu’elle donne pour justifier cette
estimation. A l’audience, Mme Guha-Sapir a reconnu qu’il était impossible
d’attribuer à une cause unique les « morts en surnombre » recensées
dans son rapport. A supposer que le nombre de 3,2 millions de vies
humaines perdues soit retenu comme indication du nombre de vies perdues
durant le conflit armé, la Cour ne disposerait d’aucun élément plausible
pour déterminer dans quels cas il existait « un lien de causalité
suffisamment direct et certain entre le fait illicite … et le préjudice subi
par le demandeur » (Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la
région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 32 ; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de
Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 332, par. 14, citant Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Serbie-et-Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I),
p. 232‑233, par. 462). Certaines des vies perdues durant le conflit (dont le
nombre ne peut être déterminé) peuvent être considérées comme ayant
une cause trop éloignée des faits internationalement illicites commis par
l’Ouganda pour servir de base à réclamation de réparation contre celui‑ci
(voir le commentaire de l’article 31 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat, ACDI, 2001, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 98, par. 10). Par
conséquent, la Cour estime que les enquêtes sur la mortalité présentées
ne peuvent contribuer à la détermination du nombre de vies perdues
attribuables à l’Ouganda.
149. De plus, la Cour prend note du rapport sur les « morts causées par
le conflit » ou « pertes en vies humaines résultant directement du conflit
armé » que M. Urdal, expert qu’elle a désigné, a établi en se fondant sur
la base de données de l’UCDP, une base de données universitaire dont il
s’est servi pour recenser, à partir d’épisodes individuels, les « morts directement
causées par le conflit ». Cet expert a estimé, en s’appuyant sur la
base de données de l’UCDP, que pendant la période pertinente, soit entre
août 1998 et juin 2003, 14 663 morts directes de civils s’étaient produites
sur l’ensemble du territoire de la RDC, dont 5769 en Ituri. Ce chiffre
comprend les civils « tués en conséquence d’actes de violence délibérément
dirigés contre eux » et les « victimes [civiles] collatérales ». M. Urdal note
dans son rapport que la base de données de l’UCDP ne recense que
32 morts de civils en RDC au cours d’affrontements impliquant des
troupes ougandaises. La Cour rappelle toutefois que, dans son arrêt de
armed activities (judgment) 64
55
do not substantiate the existence of a sufficiently direct and certain causal
nexus. The Court considers that, irrespective of the scientific and methodological
quality of the surveys, they were not intended to, and do not,
identify the number of deaths that have a sufficiently direct and certain
causal nexus to the unlawful acts of Uganda. In her report, Ms Guha‑Sapir
estimates “with 95% confidence that a minimum of 3.2 million excess
deaths may have resulted in this period due to armed conflict”, but the
Court was not convinced by her explanation for this estimate. During the
hearing, Ms Guha‑Sapir acknowledged that it was impossible to attribute
the “excess deaths” identified in her report to a single cause. Even if the
number of 3.2 million lives lost were accepted as an indication of the
number of lives lost during the armed conflict, the Court would be left
without any plausible basis to determine for which of these lives lost
“there is a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the wrongful
act . . . and the injury suffered by the Applicant” (Certain Activities
Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 32;
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the
Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 332,
para. 14, citing Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and
Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 232‑233, para. 462).
Some of the lives lost during the conflict (the number of which cannot be
determined) may be regarded as having a cause that is too remote from
the internationally wrongful acts of Uganda to be a basis for a claim of
reparation against it (see commentary to Article 31 of the ILC Articles on
State Responsibility, YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 93, para. 10).
Consequently, the Court considers that the mortality surveys presented
cannot contribute to the determination of the number of lives lost that
are attributable to Uganda.
149. The Court also takes note of the report on “conflict deaths”, that
is “lives lost as a direct result of the armed conflict”, prepared by the
Court‑appointed expert Mr. Urdal. Mr. Urdal’s report is based on the
UCDP database, an academic database which he uses to identify “direct
conflict deaths” based on individual incidents. Using the UCDP database,
Mr. Urdal arrives at an estimate of 14,663 direct civilian deaths that
occurred in the entire DRC during the relevant period, between August
1998 and June 2003, including 5,769 in Ituri. This number includes civilians
who “were killed as a result of deliberately targeted violence”, as well
as “civilian collateral victims”. Mr. Urdal notes in his report that only
32 civilian deaths are coded in the UCDP database as having occurred in
the DRC in clashes involving Ugandan troops. However, the Court
recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it also held Uganda responsible for failing
to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri in
65 activités armées (arrêt)
56
2005, elle a également jugé l’Ouganda responsable de manquements aux
obligations lui incombant en tant que puissance occupante en Ituri,
pour ce qui concerne les violations du droit international des droits de
l’homme et du droit international humanitaire dans le territoire occupé
(C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 245, par. 220). Sur cette base, et à moins que l’Ouganda
n’établisse que certains des décès allégués par la RDC en Ituri
n’ont pas été causés par son manquement à ses obligations de puissance
occupante, le défendeur doit réparation pour les pertes en vies humaines
résultant du conflit en Ituri, que celles‑ci aient ou non résulté d’affrontements
impliquant des troupes ougandaises (voir le paragraphe 78
ci-
dessus).
Quant aux vies perdues hors Ituri, la base de données de
l’UCDP se révèle moins utile, puisqu’elle n’est, selon l’expert, « pas destinée
à déterminer l’imputation juridique de la responsabilité des morts ».
150. La Cour constate en outre les limites intrinsèques de la base de
données de l’UCDP en tant qu’élément de preuve dans une procédure
judiciaire. Cette base de données se fonde essentiellement sur des articles
de presse et des rapports d’organisations non gouvernementales, documents
auxquels, lorsqu’ils sont présentés directement dans le cadre de ses
procédures, la Cour n’accorde qu’une valeur probante limitée dès lors
qu’ils ne sont pas corroborés par d’autres types de preuve (arrêt de 2005,
C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 204, par. 68 ; Plates-formes
pétrolières (République
islamique d’Iran c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003,
p. 190, par. 60 ; Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui-
ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 40‑41, par. 62-63 ; Personnel diplomatique et consulaire
des Etats‑Unis à Téhéran (Etats‑Unis d’Amérique c. Iran), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 9‑10, par. 12‑13). De plus, les chiffres de la base de
données de l’UCDP représentent des estimations très prudentes et, selon
toute probabilité, minorent le nombre total de morts directes de civils.
Cela a été confirmé par M. Urdal à l’audience, lorsqu’il a déclaré, à propos
du chiffre de 14 663 civils tués (morts survenues entre août 1998 et
juin 2003 sur l’ensemble du territoire de la RDC, d’après la base de données
de l’UCDP, dont 5769 en Ituri), que « la sous‑estimation [étai]t
presque certaine » et qu’il serait impossible de déterminer la « marge
d’erreur ». Cette sous‑estimation qu’il suppose est étayée, dans une certaine
mesure, par la base de données de l’ACLED, dont les calculs aboutissent
à un nombre total de 23 791 morts résultant du conflit (civils et
militaires compris).
151. Si les éléments présentés par M. Urdal peuvent fournir une indication
du nombre approximatif de victimes civiles directes, la Cour ne
peut cependant fonder son estimation du nombre de vies perdues uniquement
sur le rapport de cet expert et la base de données de l’UCDP. Elle
doit donc examiner d’autres types de preuve.
152. La Cour a examiné des rapports produits sous les auspices de
l’ONU et d’autres documents établis par des tierces parties indépendantes.
Dans son arrêt de 2005, elle s’est fondée sur des rapports de
l’ONU dont elle considérait qu’ils contenaient « suffisamment d’éléments
armed activities (judgment) 65
56
respect of violations of international human rights law and international
humanitarian law in the occupied territory (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 245,
para. 220). On this basis, and unless Uganda establishes that particular
deaths alleged by the DRC in Ituri were not caused by Uganda’s failure
to meet its obligations as an occupying Power, Uganda owes reparation
for the loss of life resulting from the conflict in Ituri, irrespective of
whether those deaths resulted from clashes involving Ugandan troops
(see paragraph 78 above). With respect to lives lost outside Ituri, the
UCDP database is less helpful, since, according to the expert, it is “not
designed to determine the legal attribution of deaths”.
150. Moreover, the Court notes the inherent limitations of the UCDP
database as evidence in a judicial proceeding. The UCDP database is
based mainly on press reports and reports by non‑governmental organizations.
The Court accords to such documents, if they are submitted
directly in its proceedings, only limited probative value when they are not
corroborated by other forms of evidence (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2005, p. 204, para. 68; Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v.
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 190, para. 60;
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua
v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
pp. 40‑41, paras. 62‑63; United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in
Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980,
pp. 9‑10, paras. 12‑13). Moreover, the numbers resulting from the UCDP
database represent very conservative estimates and, in all likelihood,
undercount the overall number of direct civilian deaths. This was confirmed
by Mr. Urdal at the hearing, when he stated that the figure of
14,663 civilian deaths (that occurred in the entire DRC from August 1998
until June 2003 based on the UCDP database, including 5,769 in Ituri)
was “almost certainly an underestimate” and that it would be impossible
to determine the “margin of error”. His assessment regarding an undercount
is to a certain extent substantiated by indications on the ACLED
database for an overall number of 23,791 (civilian and military) deaths
resulting from the conflict.
151. Although the information supplied by Mr. Urdal may provide an
indication of an approximate number of direct civilian victims, the Court
cannot base its assessment of the number of lives lost solely on the report
of Mr. Urdal and the UCDP database. It is thus necessary to consider
additional forms of evidence.
152. The Court has considered reports produced under the auspices of
the United Nations and other documents prepared by independent third
parties. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court relied on United Nations reports
as “sufficient evidence of a reliable quality”, but only “to the extent that
66 activités armées (arrêt)
57
de preuve dignes de foi », mais uniquement « dans la mesure où ils [avaie]nt
une valeur probante et [étaie]nt corroborés, si nécessaire, par d’autres
sources crédibles » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 239‑240, par. 205‑208, et p. 249,
par. 237). La valeur probante précise reconnue à un rapport, y compris
ceux rédigés par des entités de l’ONU, dépend également de la méthode et
de l’ampleur des travaux de recherche qui sous-tendent
son élaboration
(Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I), p. 76,
par. 189‑190 ; Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Serbie-et-Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 135‑137, par. 227‑230). C’est pourquoi la
Cour accorde une crédibilité particulière au rapport Mapping (voir le
paragraphe 125 ci-
dessus).
Il est à noter que toutes les informations figurant
dans ce rapport sont corroborées par au moins deux sources indépendantes,
notamment des entretiens avec des témoins, et constituent
donc des éléments de preuve fiables (rapport Mapping, par. 10). Cela
étant, même dans le rapport Mapping,
« [i]l ne s’agissait … pas de se livrer à des enquêtes approfondies ou
d’obtenir des preuves qui seraient admissibles comme telles devant
un tribunal, mais plutôt de « fournir les éléments de base nécessaires
pour formuler des hypothèses initiales d’enquête en donnant une idée
de l’ampleur des violations, en établissant leurs caractéristiques et en
identifiant les possibilités d’obtention de preuve » » (ibid., par. 5).
153. La Cour a aussi tenu compte d’autres documents de l’ONU,
comme les rapports du Secrétaire général sur la mission de l’ONU en
République démocratique du Congo (ci‑après la « MONUC »), en gardant
à l’esprit que ces rapports ne fournissent pas toujours des informations
suffisantes sur la méthode suivie et sont, pour la plupart, moins
rigoureusement vérifiés que le rapport Mapping.
154. La Cour est d’avis que les différents rapports d’organismes de
l’ONU, dont le rapport Mapping, donnent un certain nombre d’informations
sur des événements particuliers survenus pendant le conflit, mais ne
fournissent pas une base suffisante pour lui permettre de parvenir à une
estimation globale du nombre de morts attribuables à l’Ouganda. Les
descriptions de situations particulières où des personnes ont été tuées sont
souvent imprécises (« plusieurs » ou « de nombreux » morts), mais, dans
certains cas, un nombre approximatif de victimes éventuelles est au moins
donné. Il en est ainsi de la situation à Kisangani, relativement bien documentée
: selon le rapport Mapping, les combats entre troupes ougandaises
et troupes rwandaises à Kisangani ont causé la mort de « plus de 30 » civils
en août 1999 et de « plus de 24 » civils en mai 2000, et tué « entre 244
et 760 » civils en juin 2000 (rapport Mapping, par. 361‑363). Ces chiffres,
s’ils peuvent suffire à jeter le doute sur le nombre de 920 victimes civiles
que la RDC affirme être liées à ces événements, fournissent cependant à la
Cour une échelle de valeurs dans laquelle situer son estimation globale de
l’ampleur des pertes en vies humaines. En outre, étant donné que le rap-
armed activities (judgment) 66
57
they [were] of probative value and [were] corroborated, if necessary, by
other credible sources” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 239‑240, paras. 205-208
and p. 249, para. 237). The precise evidentiary value accorded to any
report, including those produced by United Nations entities, also depends
on the methodology and amount of research underlying its preparation
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I),
p. 76, paras. 189‑190; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia
and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 135‑137,
paras. 227‑230). For that reason, the Court attaches particular credibility
to the Mapping Report (see paragraph 125 above). Notably, all the information
contained in the Mapping Report is corroborated by at least two
independent sources, including witness interviews, and thus constitutes
reliable evidence (Mapping Report, para. 10). However, even the Mapping
Report
“did not provide for in‑depth investigations or gathering of evidence
admissible in court, but rather [aims at giving] ‘the basis for the formulation
of initial hypotheses of investigation by giving a sense of the
scale of violations, detecting patterns and identifying potential leads
or sources of evidence’” (ibid., para. 5).
153. The Court has also taken into account other United Nations documents,
such as the Secretary-General’s
reports on the United Nations
Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter
“MONUC”), bearing in mind that those reports do not always provide
sufficient information as to the methodology adopted and are for the
most part less rigorously verified than the Mapping Report.
154. The Court is of the view that the various reports of United Nations
bodies, including the Mapping Report, provide a certain amount of information
about specific incidents during the conflict, but do not provide a
sufficient basis for the Court to arrive at an overall estimate of the number
of deaths attributable to Uganda. The individual instances of persons
killed that are listed in the Mapping Report are often described in imprecise
terms (e.g. “several” or “numerous”). In other cases, the Mapping
Report at least provides a range of the number of possible casualties. This
is exemplified by the situation in Kisangani, which is documented comparatively
well. The Mapping Report states that the fighting between
Ugandan and Rwandan troops in Kisangani resulted in the death of
“over 30” civilians in August 1999, “over 24 civilians” in May 2000, and
“between 244 and 760” civilians in June 2000 (Mapping Report,
paras. 361‑363). While these numbers may suffice to cast doubt on the
number of 920 civilian casualties claimed by the DRC in relation to these
events, they provide the Court with certain ranges that inform its overall
appreciation of the scale of loss of life. Moreover, since the Mapping
67 activités armées (arrêt)
58
port Mapping n’était pas destiné à imputer une responsabilité à des
acteurs particuliers, les chiffres qui y figurent ne permettent pas nécessairement
à la Cour de conclure qu’il existait un lien de causalité suffisamment
direct et certain entre les faits internationalement illicites commis
par l’Ouganda et les cas de pertes en vies humaines recensées (voir les
paragraphes 93 et 148 ci-
dessus).
155. La Cour note que, selon l’Ouganda, le rapport Mapping recense
au total 2291 morts pour lesquelles il peut exister une « suspicion raisonnable
» qu’elles résultent d’un comportement qui lui est attribuable. Cette
estimation ne tient cependant pas compte du nombre de vies perdues
en conséquence des manquements de l’Ouganda aux obligations lui
incombant en tant que puissance occupante en Ituri, pas plus qu’elle ne
donne acte de ce que l’Ouganda pourrait devoir réparation à raison de
certaines morts survenues hors Ituri, même si le rapport Mapping ne
fait pas de référence précise au rôle joué par l’Ouganda dans un événement
particulier.
156. La Cour considère en outre que, même si l’on additionne les
pertes en vies civiles dont le rapport Mapping dit qu’elles se sont produites
en Ituri et les morts survenues ailleurs en RDC dans lesquelles
l’Ouganda est impliqué, le total obtenu ne reflétera probablement pas
pleinement l’ampleur des pertes en vies humaines dont l’Ouganda est responsable.
Le rapport Mapping vise uniquement à rendre compte des violations
graves du droit international humanitaire et du droit international
des droits de l’homme. Dans son deuxième rapport spécial sur la
MONUC, en date du 27 mai 2003, le Secrétaire général de l’ONU estime
par exemple qu’il y a eu, entre 1999 et 2003, « plus de 60 000 » morts dans
le seul district de l’Ituri (Nations Unies, doc. S/2003/566 du 27 mai 2003,
par. 10). Si la Cour ne peut se contenter de reprendre un chiffre figurant,
sans aucune analyse à l’appui, dans une source unique, le rapport du
Secrétaire général donne toutefois à penser que la prise en considération
du seul rapport Mapping conduirait à une sous-estimation
du nombre de
vies perdues.
*
157. En appréciant les insuffisances des éléments de preuve présentés
par la RDC, la Cour tient compte des circonstances très particulières de
la présente affaire, lesquelles ont réduit la capacité de la RDC de produire
des preuves ayant une plus forte valeur probante (voir les paragraphes
125‑126 ci-
dessus).
Elle rappelle que, de 1998 à 2003, la RDC n’a
pas exercé de contrôle effectif sur l’Ituri, du fait de l’occupation de guerre
par l’Ouganda. Dans l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou, la Cour a dit que le
contrôle territorial exclusif normalement exercé par l’Etat dans les limites
de ses frontières n’était pas sans influence sur le choix des modes de
preuve dont disposaient les autres Etats, à qui il pouvait être permis de
recourir plus largement aux présomptions de fait, aux indices ou aux
preuves circonstancielles (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Albanie),
armed activities (judgment) 67
58
Report was not designed to assign responsibility to particular actors, the
numbers provided therein do not necessarily enable the Court to conclude
that there was a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the
internationally wrongful acts of Uganda and the instances of loss of life
reported (see paragraphs 93 and 148 above).
155. The Court takes note of Uganda’s estimate that the Mapping
Report identifies a total number of 2,291 lives lost with respect to which
there can be a “reasonable suspicion” that they resulted from conduct
that is attributable to Uganda. However, this assessment does not take
into account the number of lives that were lost as a result of Uganda’s
failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri, nor
does it recognize that Uganda may owe reparation for certain deaths outside
Ituri, even if the Mapping Report does not make specific reference to
Uganda’s role in a particular incident.
156. The Court further considers that, even when adding together the
civilian lives lost that were recorded by the Mapping Report as having
occurred in Ituri and the lives lost in other parts of the DRC in which
Uganda is implicated, the total number will probably not reflect the full
extent of loss of life for which Uganda is responsible. The Mapping
Report aims solely to document serious violations of international
humanitarian and human rights law. The United Nations Secretary-General’s
Second special report on MONUC dated 27 May 2003, for
example, estimates that “more than 60,000” deaths occurred between 1999
and 2003 in Ituri alone (UN doc. S/2003/566 of 27 May 2003, para. 10).
While the Court cannot simply adopt a figure that appears, without supporting
analysis, in a single report, the MONUC report nevertheless suggests
that reliance solely on the Mapping Report would lead to an
undercount of the number of lives lost.
*
157. In considering the deficiencies in the evidence presented by the
DRC, the Court takes into account the extraordinary circumstances of
the present case, which have restricted the ability of the DRC to produce
evidence with greater probative value (see paragraphs 125‑126 above).
The Court recalls that from 1998 to 2003, the DRC did not exercise effective
control over Ituri, due to belligerent occupation by Uganda. In the
Corfu Channel case, the Court found that the exclusive territorial control
that is normally exercised by a State within its frontiers has a bearing
upon the methods of proof available to other States, which may be
allowed to have a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact and circumstantial
evidence (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 18) (see paragraph 120 above). This
68 activités armées (arrêt)
59
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 18) (voir le paragraphe 120 ci-
dessus).
Ce principe général s’applique également aux situations dans lesquelles
l’Etat auquel incomberait normalement la charge de la preuve a perdu le
contrôle effectif du territoire où se trouvent des éléments de preuve cruciaux
en raison de l’occupation de guerre de ce territoire par un autre
Etat.
158. C’est en outre à juste titre que la RDC souligne que le type de
preuves habituellement produit dans les affaires de dommages causés aux
personnes, notamment les actes de décès et les dossiers d’hospitalisation,
n’est souvent pas disponible dans les régions éloignées dépourvues d’infrastructures
civiles de base, ce dont la CPI aussi a tenu compte. La Cour
rappelle les conclusions de cette dernière, qui a estimé que les victimes du
même conflit ne pouvaient pas toujours fournir des preuves documentaires
(voir le paragraphe 123 ci‑dessus). Dans les procédures en question, toutefois,
nombre d’entre elles ont fourni des attestations de décès et des rapports
médicaux (Le Procureur c. Germain Katanga, affaire ICC‑01/04‑01/07,
chambre de première instance II, ordonnance de réparation en vertu de
l’article 75 du Statut, 24 mars 2017, par. 111-112). Même si, en la présente
espèce, il n’était pas impossible à la RDC de produire de tels documents
pour un certain nombre de personnes, la Cour reconnaît la difficulté qu’il
y aurait eu pour elle à les obtenir pour des dizaines de milliers de victimes
alléguées.
159. La Cour a conscience qu’il n’existe souvent pas de preuves détaillées
d’événements particuliers survenus au cours d’une guerre dévastatrice,
dans des régions reculées et il y a près de vingt ans. Cela étant, elle
estime que, nonobstant la situation difficile dans laquelle elle se trouvait,
la RDC aurait pu, depuis le prononcé de l’arrêt de 2005, recueillir davantage
d’éléments concernant les vies perdues (voir le paragraphe 66
ci-
dessus).
160. La Cour observe que les éléments de preuve versés au dossier,
notamment le rapport Mapping, établissent que de nombreux civils ont
perdu la vie en RDC entre 1998 et 2003 et qu’une partie importante de ces
morts peut être liée à des faits internationalement illicites commis par
l’Ouganda. La Cour ne dispose toutefois pas d’éléments suffisants confirmant
le chiffre de 180 000 morts de civils à raison desquelles, selon la
RDC, l’Ouganda doit réparation. Elle ne peut non plus fonder ses conclusions
relatives aux réparations sur le fait que la base de données de
l’UCDP ait enregistré 32 morts de civils survenues au cours d’affrontements
impliquant des troupes ougandaises, ne serait-ce que parce que ce
chiffre n’englobe pas les morts causées par des groupes armés en Ituri
(voir le paragraphe 78 ci‑dessus).
161. La Cour estime que l’analyse de M. Urdal, considérée conjointement
avec les rapports de divers organismes de l’ONU, fournit une base
plus solide aux fins de l’évaluation du nombre de vies perdues à raison
desquelles l’Ouganda doit réparation. D’après M. Urdal, la base de données
de l’UCDP permet d’aboutir à une estimation de 14 663 morts
directes de civils sur l’ensemble du territoire de la RDC, dont 5769 en
armed activities (judgment) 68
59
general principle also applies to situations in which a State that would
normally bear the burden of proof has lost effective control over the territory
where crucial evidence is located on account of the belligerent
occupation of its territory by another State.
158. Moreover, the DRC rightly emphasizes that the kind of evidence
that is usually provided in cases concerning damage to persons, such as
death certificates and hospital records, is often not available in remote
areas lacking basic civilian infrastructure, and that this reality has also
been recognized by the ICC. The Court recalls the finding of the ICC
according to which victims of the same conflict were not always in a position
to furnish documentary evidence (see paragraph 123 above). In those
proceedings, however, many such victims did in fact provide death certificates
and medical reports (The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga,
ICC‑01/04‑01/07, Trial Chamber II, Order for Reparations pursuant to
Article 75 of the Statute, 24 March 2017, paras. 111‑112). While it would
not have been impossible for the DRC to produce such documentation
for a certain number of persons in the present case, the Court recognizes
the difficulties in obtaining such documentation for tens of thousands of
alleged victims.
159. The Court is aware that detailed proof of specific events that have
occurred in a devastating war, in remote areas, and almost two decades
ago, is often not available. At the same time, the Court considers that
notwithstanding the difficult situation in which the DRC found itself,
more evidence relating to loss of life could be expected to have been collected
since the Court delivered its 2005 Judgment (see paragraph 66
above).
160. The Court observes that the evidence before it, notably the Mapping
Report, demonstrates that a large number of civilian casualties
occurred in the DRC between 1998 and 2003 and that a significant part
of these casualties can be linked to internationally wrongful acts of
Uganda. However, there is insufficient evidence to support the DRC’s
claim of 180,000 civilian deaths for which Uganda owes reparation. Nor
can the Court base its conclusions on reparation on the 32 deaths that are
coded in the UCDP database as having occurred in clashes involving
Ugandan forces, if only because that figure does not cover deaths caused
by armed groups in Ituri (see paragraph 78 above).
161. The Court considers that the analysis by Mr. Urdal, taken
together with reports of various United Nations bodies, provides a more
substantiated basis for assessing the number of lives lost for which
Uganda owes reparation. According to Mr. Urdal, the UCDP database
arrives at an estimate of 14,663 direct civilian deaths in the entire DRC,
of which 5,769 occurred in Ituri and 8,894 occurred in areas outside of
69 activités armées (arrêt)
60
Ituri et 8894 dans d’autres régions. S’agissant des morts survenues en
Ituri, la Cour ne dispose pas d’éléments de preuve incitant à penser que
les morts de civils sont dues à une cause autre que les manquements de
l’Ouganda à ses obligations de puissance occupante. M. Urdal a par
ailleurs
indiqué que le nombre total de civils tués en Ituri était probablement
sous-estimé
dans la base de données de l’UCDP. Il s’ensuit que le
nombre de morts de civils en Ituri à raison desquelles l’Ouganda doit
réparation est probablement supérieur au chiffre de 5769 auquel M. Urdal
est parvenu en s’appuyant sur celle‑ci. Concernant la zone hors Ituri, la
Cour ne peut simplement tenir pour acquis que le nombre de morts de
civils à raison desquelles l’Ouganda doit réparation équivaut aux
8894 morts causées par le conflit qui, d’après les calculs de M. Urdal, se
seraient produites dans cette zone. D’une part, compte tenu de la multiplicité
des acteurs ayant participé au conflit armé en dehors de l’Ituri, il
est impossible de présumer que toutes les morts en question ont été
causées
par le comportement illicite de l’Ouganda. D’autre part, comme
l’a fait remarquer M. Urdal, le nombre de morts de civils survenues
hors Ituri est probablement sous-estimé
dans la base de données
de l’UCDP.
162. Ni les documents présentés par la RDC, ni les rapports soumis
par les experts désignés par la Cour ou élaborés par des organismes de
l’ONU n’apportent d’éléments suffisants pour déterminer de manière précise
ou même approximative le nombre de morts de civils à raison desquelles
l’Ouganda doit réparation. Compte tenu de ces limites, la Cour
considère que les éléments versés au dossier incitent à penser que le
nombre de morts à raison desquelles l’Ouganda doit réparation se situe
entre 10 000 et 15 000 environ.
*
163. Passant à la question de l’évaluation des dommages, la Cour
considère que la RDC n’a pas présenté d’éléments convaincants prouvant
que, comme elle l’affirme, le montant moyen accordé par les juridictions
congolaises aux familles de victimes de crimes de guerre s’élève à
34 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis. Les rapports soumis par des experts dans
le cadre d’affaires concernant la situation en RDC et portées devant la
CPI incitent à penser que ce chiffre est trop élevé (Le Procureur
c. Bosco Ntaganda, affaire ICC‑01/04‑02/06, chambre de première instance
VI, ordonnance de réparation, 8 mars 2021, par. 237 ; Le Procureur
c. Germain Katanga, affaire ICC‑01/04‑01/07, chambre de première instance
II, ordonnance de réparation en vertu de l’article 75 du Statut,
24 mars 2017, par. 230). La Cour ne retiendra donc pas le montant moyen
proposé par la RDC pour la perte d’une vie humaine résultant d’actes de
violence délibérément dirigés contre les populations civiles, quand bien
même la jurisprudence nationale pourrait, d’une manière générale, apporter
un éclairage utile dans une affaire comme celle-
ci. Elle ne considère
pas non plus que les montants forfaitaires proposés comme autre solution
armed activities (judgment) 69
60
Ituri. In respect of deaths in Ituri, the Court has not been presented with
evidence suggesting that those civilian deaths were due to a cause other
than Uganda’s failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power.
Moreover, Mr. Urdal has indicated that the UCDP database likely undercounted
the total number of civilian deaths in Ituri. It follows that the
number of civilian deaths in Ituri for which Uganda owes reparation
likely exceeds the figure of 5,769 that Mr. Urdal derived from the UCDP
database. Outside Ituri, the Court may not simply assume that the number
of civilian deaths for which Uganda owes reparation corresponds to
the 8,894 conflict-related
deaths calculated by Mr. Urdal as having
occurred in that area. On the one hand, given the involvement of many
actors in the armed conflict outside Ituri, it cannot be presumed that all
such deaths were caused by Uganda’s wrongful conduct. On the other
hand, Mr. Urdal has observed that the UCDP database likely also undercounted
civilian deaths outside Ituri.
162. Neither the materials presented by the DRC, nor the reports provided
by the Court‑appointed experts or prepared by United Nations
bodies contain sufficient evidence to determine a precise or even an
approximate number of civilian deaths for which Uganda owes reparation.
Bearing these limitations in mind, the Court considers that the evidence
presented to it suggests that the number of deaths for which
Uganda owes reparation falls in the range of 10,000 to 15,000 persons.
*
163. Turning to valuation, the Court considers that the DRC has not
presented convincing evidence for its claim that the average amount
awarded by Congolese courts to the families of victims of war crimes
amounts to US$34,000. Expert reports submitted in the context of cases
before the ICC that are related to the situation in the DRC suggest that
this figure is too high (The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, ICC‑01/04‑02/06,
Trial Chamber VI, Reparations Order, 8 March 2021, para. 237; The
Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, ICC‑01/04‑01/07, Trial Chamber II,
Order for Reparations pursuant to Article 75 of the Statute, 24 March
2017, para. 230). Therefore, the Court will not rely on the average amount
proposed by the DRC for the loss of a life as a result of deliberate acts of
violence against the civilian population, irrespective of whether judgments
of domestic courts may generally serve as an appropriate guide in
a case such as the present one. The Court also does not consider that the
alternative fixed‑sum rates suggested by the Court‑appointed expert
Mr. Senogles are suitable for the present proceedings. The expert derives
these rates from the practice of the UNCC but does not provide a satis-
70 activités armées (arrêt)
61
par M. Senogles, expert qu’elle a désigné, conviennent dans la présente
affaire. L’expert déduit ces montants de la pratique de la CINU mais ne
donne pas de raison satisfaisante justifiant leur application dans le cas
d’espèce. Le montant qu’il avance pour la perte d’une vie humaine est
fondé sur les réclamations de catégorie C de la commission, pour lesquelles
les requérants pouvaient présenter des demandes pour des pertes
effectives jusqu’à concurrence de 100 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis à condition
d’y avoir joint des preuves appropriées concernant les circonstances
et l’évaluation de la perte invoquée. La Cour observe que, pour ce qui est
des réclamations de catégorie B de la CINU, les requérants pouvaient,
par une procédure de règlement accéléré dans laquelle le critère d’établissement
de la preuve était moins strict, demander un montant forfaitaire
allant de 2500 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne ayant subi un
préjudice
corporel grave ou ayant perdu un conjoint, un enfant ou un
ascendant au premier degré, à 10 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis par famille
de victime.
164. La méthode proposée par la RDC pour établir la valeur de vies
perdues dans d’autres circonstances que des attaques directes dirigées
contre la population civile est semblable à celle basée sur l’évaluation des
revenus futurs que les victimes auraient dû percevoir au cours des années
qui leur restaient normalement à vivre. La Cour relève que les demandes
relatives aux pertes en vies humaines sont généralement fondées sur une
évaluation des pertes subies par les héritiers ou ayants droit survivants,
auxquelles s’ajoutent des dépenses administratives telles que les frais médicaux
et les frais d’inhumation (voir Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni
c. Albanie), fixation du montant des réparations, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949,
p. 249‑250 ; Décision dans les affaires Lusitania, 1er novembre 1923, RSA,
vol. VII, p. 35). La CREE a jugé qu’il s’agissait là d’une « référence utile
aux fins de l’évaluation de l’indemnisation se rapportant à des réclamations
entre Etats, à condition d’être appliquée comme il se doit dans les cas qui
s’y prêt[ai]ent », qui pouvait en outre « permettre d’aboutir à une évaluation
sommaire du préjudice causé à un Etat dont un groupe — de taille
connue — de ressortissants a[vait] subi des préjudices de nature similaire »
(CREE, Sentence finale, Réclamations de l’Ethiopie, décision du 17 août
2009, RSA, vol. XXVI, p. 669, par. 83). Outre l’élément matériel du préjudice,
la Cour peut accorder une indemnisation pour des éléments immatériels
(« mora[ux] » ou « non pécuniaire[s] ») du dommage causé à des
personnes et à leurs proches survivants à raison du préjudice psychologique
qu’ils ont subi (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République
démocratique du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I),
p. 333, par. 18). Dans l’affaire Diallo, elle a ainsi estimé que l’existence d’un
préjudice immatériel pouvait être établie en l’absence d’éléments de preuve
précis et que la détermination du montant de l’indemnité due à raison d’un
tel préjudice reposait nécessairement sur des considérations d’équité (ibid.,
p. 334‑335, par. 21 et 24). Cela étant, aux fins de la présente procédure, la
Cour considère qu’il ne serait pas opportun d’attribuer une valeur plus élevée
aux vies humaines perdues pendant une attaque délibérée contre des
armed activities (judgment) 70
61
factory rationale for applying those rates in the present case. The rate he
suggests for loss of life is based on the UNCC’s Category C claims, which
allowed individuals to claim actual losses up to US$100,000 on condition
that they were documented by appropriate evidence of the circumstances
and of the valuation of the claimed loss. The Court notes that, under the
UNCC’s Category B claims, claimants could seek fixed amounts, ranging
from US$2,500 per individual who suffered serious personal injury or
whose spouse, child or parent died, to US$10,000 per family of a victim,
in an expedited process where the standard of proof was lower.
164. The methodology that the DRC proposes for the valuation of
deaths that did not result from direct attacks on the civilian population is
similar to that based on expected future life‑time earnings. The Court
notes that claims in respect of loss of life are usually based on an evaluation
of the losses of the surviving heirs or successors, in addition to
administrative expenses such as medical and burial costs (see Corfu
Channel
(United Kingdom v. Albania), Assessment of Amount of Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 249‑250; Opinion in the Lusitania
Cases, 1 November 1923, RIAA, Vol. VII, p. 35). This approach was
considered by the EECC to be “a useful reference for assessing compensation
in inter‑State claims, if properly applied in appropriate cases”,
which “may provide a rough measure of a State’s injury where a group of
its nationals of known size has suffered similar injuries” (EECC,
Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009,
RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 669, para. 83). In addition to this material element
of injury, the Court may award compensation for non‑material (“moral”
or “non‑pecuniary”) elements of the injury caused to individuals and
their surviving relatives as a result of the psychological harm they have
suffered (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic
of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I),
p. 333, para. 18). In the Diallo case, the Court found that non‑material
injury can be established without specific evidence and that any quantification
of compensation for such injury necessarily rests on equitable considerations
(ibid., pp. 334‑335, paras. 21 and 24). However, for the
purposes of the present proceedings, the Court does not consider that it
would be appropriate to assign a higher value to lives lost in a deliberate
attack on civilians, as the DRC proposes. It notes in this regard that the
EECC considered that, in the situation before it, large per capita awards
for non‑material damage, which may be justified in individual cases,
would be inappropriate in a situation involving significant numbers of
unidentified and hypothetical victims (EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s
71 activités armées (arrêt)
62
civils, comme le propose la RDC. Elle relève à cet égard que la CREE a
estimé, dans la situation qu’elle était appelée à examiner, que, si elle pouvait
se justifier dans des cas individuels, l’allocation d’indemnités élevées
pour chaque personne ayant subi un dommage moral serait inappropriée
dans le contexte d’un nombre important de victimes non identifiées ou
hypothétiques (CREE, Sentence finale, Réclamations de l’Ethiopie, décision
du 17 août 2009, RSA, vol. XXVI, p. 664‑665, par. 61 et 64).
*
165. La Cour relève que la RDC n’a apporté que très peu d’éléments à
l’appui de sa demande d’indemnisation pour les 2000 membres de ses
forces armées qui auraient été tués. Le rapport Mapping donne des indications
très limitées à cet égard, évoquant, de manière générale, des pertes
subies par les forces armées congolaises en 1999 et faisant état d’un cas
particulier survenu en août 2000 (rapport Mapping, par. 385 et 392). La
Cour ne considère pas que les autres documents soumis par la RDC,
notamment les mémoires du chef du MLC, Jean-Pierre
Bemba, constituent
des preuves fiables. Elle souligne que le critère d’établissement de la
preuve moins strict utilisé compte tenu de la difficulté d’obtenir des
preuves documentaires en RDC (voir les paragraphes 123‑126 ci‑dessus)
ne s’applique pas avec la même force aux morts de militaires puisque l’on
peut s’attendre à ce qu’un Etat possède au moins des registres minimaux
de ses propres forces armées, notamment des soldats tués au combat. La
Cour rejette cette demande de la RDC pour défaut de preuve, et n’examinera
donc aucune autre question s’y rapportant.
*
166. La Cour rappelle qu’elle peut, dans les circonstances très particulières
de la présente affaire, adjuger une indemnisation sous la forme
d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les éléments
de preuve et compte tenu de considérations d’équité (voir le paragraphe
106 ci‑dessus). Elle fait observer que, si les preuves disponibles ne
sont pas suffisantes pour déterminer de manière raisonnablement précise
ou même approximative le nombre de morts de civils attribuables à l’Ouganda,
une échelle de valeurs du nombre possible de civils ayant ainsi
perdu la vie peut néanmoins être définie (voir le paragraphe 162 ci-
dessus).
Tenant compte de l’ensemble des éléments versés au dossier (voir les
paragraphes 135-156 ci-
dessus),
des différentes méthodes proposées pour
déterminer le montant de l’indemnisation due à raison d’une vie humaine
perdue (voir les paragraphes 163-164 ci‑dessus), et de sa jurisprudence
ainsi que des décisions d’autres organismes internationaux (voir les paragraphes
69‑126, 157‑158 et 163‑164 ci-
dessus),
la Cour adjugera une
indemnisation pour les morts de civils dans le cadre d’une somme globale
allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages causés aux personnes (voir le
paragraphe 226 ci-
dessous).
armed activities (judgment) 71
62
Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI,
pp. 664‑665, paras. 61 and 64).
*
165. Concerning the DRC’s request for compensation for 2,000 lives
allegedly lost among members of its armed forces, the Court notes that
the DRC has provided very little evidence in support of this claim. The
Mapping Report gives a very limited indication in this regard, referring
generally to losses suffered by the Congolese armed forces in 1999 and
noting one incident in August 2000 (Mapping Report, paras. 385 and 392).
The Court does not consider that other material submitted by the DRC,
including the memoir of MLC leader Jean‑Pierre Bemba, constitutes reliable
evidence. The Court emphasizes that the more lenient evidentiary
standard employed in view of the difficulty of obtaining documentary evidence
in the DRC (see paragraphs 123‑126 above) does not apply with
equal force to the loss of life of military personnel, since a State can be
expected to possess at least minimal records regarding its own armed
forces, including those killed in action. The Court dismisses this claim of
the DRC for lack of evidence, and therefore does not address any other
question in relation to it.
*
166. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances
of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum,
within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into
account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court
notes that, while the available evidence is not sufficient to determine a
reasonably precise or even an approximate number of civilian lives lost
that are attributable to Uganda, it is nevertheless possible to identify a
range of possibilities with respect to the number of such civilian lives lost
(see paragraph 162 above). Taking into account all the available evidence
(see paragraphs 135‑156 above), the various methodologies proposed to
determine the amount of compensation for a human life lost (see paragraphs
163‑164 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements
of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69‑126, 157‑158 and
163-164 above), the Court will award compensation for the loss of civilian
lives as part of a global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph
226 below).
72 activités armées (arrêt)
63
2. Atteintes aux personnes
167. La RDC demande aussi à la Cour de lui adjuger 54 464 000 dollars
des Etats‑Unis au titre de l’indemnisation des blessures ou mutilations
subies par la population civile.
168. Cette demande porte sur les blessures dues à des attaques délibérées
contre les populations civiles, telles que les actes de violence visant directement
ces populations, les mutilations ou la torture, ainsi que sur les blessures
subies comme conséquences collatérales d’opérations militaires. La
RDC fait valoir que l’Ouganda est responsable des blessures ou mutilations
subies par 30 000 civils en Ituri, chiffre qu’elle obtient en divisant par deux
celui des 60 000 morts qu’elle affirme s’être produites en Ituri. Elle soutient
que sur les 30 000 personnes blessées en Ituri, 20 000 ont, selon elle, été
victimes de violences délibérées contre les populations civiles, tandis que les
10 000 autres l’ont été « dans d’autres circonstances liées aux conflits ». Elle
indique ensuite que le nombre allégué de 20 000 personnes blessées du fait
de violences délibérées contre les populations civiles inclut 15 000 victimes
de blessures ou mutilations graves et 5000 victimes de blessures légères.
Dans d’autres régions, la RDC soutient que 1937 civils ont été blessés lors
des combats entre l’Ouganda et le Rwanda à Kisangani, en sus des 203 civils
blessés en conséquence des faits internationalement illicites commis par
l’Ouganda à Beni, Butembo et Gemena. D’après elle, le nombre total de
blessés s’élève donc à 32 140 personnes. A l’appui de cette affirmation, la
RDC invoque les rapports de l’ONU, notamment le rapport Mapping, le
deuxième rapport spécial du Secrétaire général sur la MONUC, le rapport
spécial de la MONUC sur les événements d’Ituri ainsi que les fiches d’identification
de victimes qu’elle a fournies. Elle reconnaît cependant aussi une
« absence de données plus précises sur ce point ».
169. Pour ce qui est de l’évaluation, la RDC soutient qu’il faut faire
une distinction entre les atteintes résultant d’attaques délibérées contre
des civils et celles subies « comme conséquences collatérales » d’opérations
militaires. Elle prie la Cour d’adjuger aux victimes de la première catégorie
une indemnisation fondée sur les sommes moyennes prétendument
accordées par les juridictions congolaises aux personnes blessées ou mutilées
dans le contexte de crimes internationaux graves, à savoir 3500 dollars
des Etats‑Unis pour les blessures et mutilations graves, et 150 dollars
des Etats‑Unis pour les blessures légères. S’agissant des atteintes « collatérales
», elle fait valoir que la Cour devrait adjuger un minimum de
100 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne.
*
170. L’Ouganda affirme que la RDC n’a pas produit de preuves suffisantes
pour étayer sa demande d’indemnisation pour les blessures et mutilations
subies par la population civile.
171. Le défendeur relève que la RDC a calculé le nombre de 30 000 blessés
en divisant arbitrairement par deux une estimation non corroborée de
armed activities (judgment) 72
63
2. Injuries to persons
167. The DRC also requests the Court to award US$54,464,000 in
compensation for injuries and mutilations among the civilian population.
168. This claim includes injuries due to deliberate attacks on the civilian
population, such as direct targeting, mutilation or torture, as well as
injuries suffered as collateral damage resulting from military operations.
The DRC submits that Uganda is responsible for 30,000 injured or mutilated
civilians in Ituri. The DRC arrives at this number by dividing the
60,000 deaths which it claims to have occurred in Ituri by two. It claims
that, of the 30,000 individuals injured in Ituri, 20,000 were harmed as a
result of deliberate violence against civilians, while the remaining 10,000
were injured as a result of “other circumstances related to the conflicts”.
The DRC further states that the alleged 20,000 individuals injured as a
result of deliberate violence against civilians include 15,000 who were seriously
injured or mutilated and 5,000 who suffered minor injuries. In other
areas, the DRC maintains that 1,937 civilians were injured as a consequence
of the fighting between Uganda and Rwanda in Kisangani, in
addition to 203 civilians injured as a result of Uganda’s internationally
wrongful acts in Beni, Butembo and Gemena. Thus, the overall number
of injured victims put forward by the DRC is 32,140. To support this
claim, the DRC invokes United Nations reports, particularly the Mapping
Report, the Secretary-General’s
Second special report on MONUC,
the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, as well as the victim
identification forms submitted by the DRC. However, the DRC also
notes the “absence of more precise data on this point”.
169. In terms of valuation, the DRC submits that a distinction must be
made between injuries resulting from deliberate attacks on civilians and
those suffered “as collateral damage” resulting from military operations.
The DRC requests the Court to award compensation to victims in the
first category on the basis of the average sums allegedly awarded by Congolese
courts to victims injured or mutilated in the context of the perpetration
of serious international crimes, namely US$3,500 for serious
injuries or mutilations and US$150 for minor injuries. With regard to
“collateral” injuries, the DRC argues that the Court should award a minimum
of US$100 per person.
*
170. Uganda asserts that the DRC has not produced adequate evidence
to sustain its claim for compensation for injuries and mutilations
among the civilian population.
171. Uganda argues that the DRC has derived the number of
30,000 injured persons in Ituri by arbitrarily dividing by two an uncor-
73 activités armées (arrêt)
64
la mortalité figurant dans un seul rapport de l’ONU. Il note en outre que
la RDC n’a pas établi l’identité des personnes qui auraient été blessées et
n’a pas fourni de détails tels que le lieu, la date ou la nature du préjudice.
Il maintient également que la RDC n’a pas démontré l’existence d’un lien
de causalité suffisamment direct entre les atteintes aux personnes alléguées
et les faits illicites commis par l’Ouganda. A cet égard, il critique derechef
les fiches d’identification de victimes présentées par la RDC et note que,
dans les affaires portées devant la CPI, les victimes du même conflit ont
soumis des documents justificatifs tels que des dossiers d’hospitalisation
ou des rapports d’expertise médico‑légale.
172. L’Ouganda soutient en outre que l’évaluation proposée par la
RDC en ce qui concerne l’indemnisation due à raison des dommages liés
aux atteintes aux personnes n’est pas étayée par des éléments de preuve.
Il fait valoir que la RDC n’a fourni que quelques décisions de ses tribunaux
qui portent pour la plupart sur des viols et des violences sexuelles, et
qui ne corroborent pas les montants prétendument accordés par les juridictions
congolaises pour d’autres atteintes ou mutilations.
* *
173. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a tenu l’Ouganda pour responsable
de la commission d’actes de torture et d’autres formes de traitement
inhumain à l’encontre de la population civile, ainsi que d’avoir manqué
d’établir une distinction entre cibles civiles et cibles militaires et de protéger
la population civile lors d’affrontements avec d’autres combattants, et
de n’avoir pas, en tant que puissance occupante, pris de mesures visant à
respecter et à faire respecter les droits de l’homme et le droit international
humanitaire dans le district de l’Ituri (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 280, par. 345,
point 3) du dispositif). Dès lors, les atteintes subies par la population
civile en conséquence de ces faits, ainsi que de la violation de l’interdiction
du recours à la force et du principe de non‑intervention (ibid.,
par. 345, point 1) du dispositif), entrent dans le champ de l’arrêt de 2005
et sont, par principe, soumises à l’obligation de réparation.
174. En ce qui concerne l’Ituri, la RDC avance le chiffre de 30 000
civils blessés. Estimant que 60 000 civils ont été tués et prenant ce chiffre
comme point de référence, elle considère que le nombre de blessés doit
s’élever à la moitié au moins. La Cour relève que, pendant un conflit
armé, le nombre de blessés est normalement supérieur au nombre de
morts et que, partant, il n’est pas excessif d’estimer que le premier correspond
à la moitié du second. Cela étant, la RDC n’a pas présenté d’éléments
de preuve suffisants pour établir que le nombre de morts en Ituri
s’élève effectivement à 60 000 (voir les paragraphes 156 et 160 ci-
dessus).
Par conséquent, la Cour ne voit pas sur quel fondement elle pourrait utiliser
comme référence le nombre allégué de 60 000 morts en Ituri, même
pour déterminer un nombre approximatif de civils blessés. La RDC
reconnaît que son approche est due à « l’absence de données plus précises
sur ce point ».
armed activities (judgment) 73
64
roborated mortality estimate included in a single United Nations report.
Moreover, Uganda notes that the DRC has not established the identity of
the persons alleged to have been injured and has failed to provide details
such as the location, date or nature of the injury. In addition, Uganda
maintains that the DRC has not demonstrated a sufficiently direct causal
nexus between the personal injuries claimed and Uganda’s unlawful acts.
In this regard, Uganda reiterates its criticism of the victim identification
forms submitted by the DRC and notes that, in proceedings before the
ICC, victims of the same conflict submitted corroborative documentation
such as hospital records and forensic reports.
172. Uganda further submits that the DRC’s proposed valuation of
damage for personal injuries is unsupported by evidence. Uganda argues
that the DRC has provided only a handful of domestic judgments, mostly
relating to rape and sexual violence, which do not corroborate the figures
allegedly awarded by Congolese courts in relation to other injuries or
mutilations.
* *
173. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found Uganda responsible for
torture and other forms of inhuman treatment of the civilian population,
as well as for failing to distinguish between civilian and military targets
and to protect the civilian population in fighting with other combatants,
as well as for failing, as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect
and ensure respect for human rights and international humanitarian law
in Ituri district (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the
operative part). Therefore, injuries among the civilian population which
arise from these acts, as well as from the violation of the prohibition of
the use of force and the principle of non‑intervention (ibid., para. 345,
subpara. (1) of the operative part), fall within the scope of the 2005 Judgment
and are, as a matter of principle, subject to the obligation to make
reparation.
174. With regard to Ituri, the DRC puts forward a figure of
30,000 injured civilians. Taking its claim of 60,000 civilian lives lost in
Ituri as a point of departure, the DRC estimates that the number of persons
injured must amount to at least half that number. The Court notes
that, during an armed conflict, the number of persons injured normally
surpasses the number of lives lost and, on that basis, it is not excessive to
estimate the number of injured persons as half of the number of deaths.
However, the DRC has not presented sufficient evidence to establish that
the number of lives lost in Ituri does in fact amount to 60,000 (see paragraphs
156 and 160 above). Therefore, the Court has no basis for using
the number of 60,000 lives allegedly lost in Ituri as a reference even for an
approximation of the number of civilians injured. The DRC acknowledges
that its approach is due to “the absence of more precise data on this
point”.
74 activités armées (arrêt)
65
175. La Cour a déjà relevé que les fiches d’identification de victimes
soumises par la RDC ne peuvent être considérées comme des preuves
fiables et n’établissent pas la totalité des atteintes alléguées (voir les paragraphes
146‑147 ci‑dessus). Selon le propre décompte de la RDC, seules
1353 fiches font état de blessures alléguées, notamment de violences
sexuelles. Outre qu’elles n’ont qu’une très faible valeur probante, ces
fiches ne représentent donc qu’une fraction des atteintes alléguées par la
RDC.
176. La Cour observe de plus qu’aucun des rapports pertinents de
l’ONU ne contient d’estimation globale du nombre de civils blessés. Dans
son deuxième rapport spécial sur la MONUC, le Secrétaire général de
l’ONU donne une estimation générale du nombre de morts et de déplacés
en Ituri, mais se borne à indiquer, s’agissant des autres atteintes aux personnes,
qu’il y a eu « un nombre incalculable de personnes mutilées, dont
certaines très gravement » (Nations Unies, doc. S/2003/566 du 27 mai 2003,
par. 10). De même, le rapport spécial de la MONUC sur les événements
d’Ituri donne quelques exemples de cas de civils blessés, mais ne peut servir
de base à la Cour pour parvenir à une estimation globale (Nations Unies,
doc. S/2004/573 du 16 juillet 2004, par. 74-75 et 93). Le rapport Mapping
contient également des exemples de cas dans lesquels des atteintes aux personnes
ont résulté d’attaques délibérées contre la population civile, notamment
d’actes de torture et de mutilations (rapport Mapping, par. 369,
407‑408, 413-414 et 422), mais reconnaît qu’il a fallu « concentrer les principaux
efforts sur les [événements] ayant entraîné la mort d’un grand
nombre de victimes » (ibid., par. 535). L’ensemble des cas recensés dans ce
rapport représente, au total, quelques centaines de civils blessés, nombre
que la Cour estime invraisemblablement bas, compte tenu en particulier
du caractère prolongé et généralisé des violences en Ituri.
177. Il existe des estimations plus fiables s’agissant de l’ampleur des
dommages résultant des combats entre troupes ougandaises et troupes
rwandaises à Kisangani. Selon le rapport Mapping, les affrontements
entre des membres des UPDF et des troupes rwandaises à Kisangani en
août 1999 ont fait plus de 100 blessés parmi les civils (ibid., par. 361). Le
rapport de la mission d’évaluation interinstitutions de l’ONU à Kisangani
(ci-
après le « rapport de la mission interinstitutions ») indique qu’environ
1700 personnes ont été blessées au cours des affrontements opposant
les troupes ougandaises aux troupes rwandaises entre le 5 et le 10 juin
2000 (Nations Unies, doc. S/2000/1153 du 4 décembre 2000, par. 57). Ce
nombre est largement corroboré par le rapport Mapping, qui note que
« plus de 1000 » civils ont été blessés à Kisangani au cours de ces combats
(rapport Mapping, par. 363). La Cour peut donc conclure que le nombre
de 1937 civils blessés avancé par la RDC en ce qui concerne Kisangani
s’inscrit dans une échelle de valeurs plausible. Elle n’est pas en mesure
d’imputer à l’Ouganda une part précise de l’ensemble des dommages afférents
aux personnes blessées à Kisangani.
178. Le rapport Mapping mentionne en outre des événements pertinents
dans d’autres régions de la RDC. Il indique ainsi que, dans la ville de Beni, des
armed activities (judgment) 74
65
175. The Court has already noted that the victim identification forms
submitted by the DRC cannot be considered reliable evidence and do not
demonstrate the full extent of injuries claimed (see paragraphs 146-147
above). By the DRC’s own count, no more than 1,353 of those forms
record alleged injuries, including sexual violence. Apart from their minimal
evidentiary value, the forms thus represent only a fraction of the injuries
claimed by the DRC.
176. Furthermore, the Court observes that none of the relevant
United Nations reports includes an overall estimate of the number of
injured civilians. The United Nations Secretary-General’s
Second special
report on MONUC gives a broad estimate of lives lost and persons displaced
in Ituri but notes in relation to other personal injuries only that
“countless others have been left maimed or severely mutilated”
(UN doc. S/2003/566 of 27 May 2003, para. 10). Similarly, the MONUC
special report on the events in Ituri contains some examples of instances
where civilians were left injured, but does not provide a basis for the
Court to reach an overall estimate (UN doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004,
paras. 74‑75 and 93). The Mapping Report also contains examples of
incidents involving injuries resulting from deliberate attacks on the civilian
population, including through torture and mutilation (Mapping
Report, paras. 369, 407‑408, 413‑414 and 422). However, the Mapping
Report acknowledges that “most effort had to be focused on incidents
involving the deaths of a large number of victims” (ibid., para. 535). The
sum of the instances identified in the Mapping Report amounts to hundreds
of injured civilians, a number which the Court finds implausibly
low, particularly given the protracted and pervasive violence in Ituri.
177. More reliable estimates exist with regard to the magnitude of injuries
resulting from the fighting between Ugandan and Rwandan troops in
Kisangani. The Mapping Report states that the fighting between UPDF
and Rwandan troops in Kisangani in August 1999 resulted in over
100 wounded civilians (ibid., para. 361). The report of the United Nations
inter‑agency assessment mission to Kisangani (hereinafter the
“Inter‑Agency Report”) notes that an estimated 1,700 people were injured
in clashes between Ugandan and Rwandan troops in the period from
5 to 10 June 2000 (UN doc. S/2000/1153 of 4 December 2000, para. 57).
This figure is broadly corroborated by the Mapping Report, which states
that “over 1,000” civilians were wounded in Kisangani during this
encounter (Mapping Report, para. 363). The Court can therefore conclude
that the number of 1,937 injured civilians put forward by the DRC
in relation to Kisangani falls within a plausible range. The Court is not in
a position to apportion to Uganda a specific share of the total damage
related to persons injured in Kisangani.
178. The Mapping Report also refers to relevant events in other areas of
the DRC. For example, the Mapping Report indicates that Ugandan
75 activités armées (arrêt)
66
troupes ougandaises « ont détenu arbitrairement de nombreuses personnes et
leur ont fait subir des tortures et divers autres traitements cruels, inhumains
ou dégradants » (rapport Mapping, par. 349). Il fait aussi état de la torture de
civils et d’un militant des droits de l’homme dans la ville de Buta (ibid.,
par. 402). Cela étant, même si ces exemples montrent que les attaques délibérées
et les mauvais traitements infligés aux civils par les forces ougandaises,
parfois constitutifs de torture, ne se sont pas limités à l’Ituri ou à Kisangani,
le rapport Mapping ne peut servir de base fiable pour déterminer l’ampleur de
ces actes dans d’autres lieux en vue d’accorder une indemnisation.
179. Sur la base des éléments de preuve examinés, la Cour n’est pas en
mesure de parvenir avec un degré de certitude suffisant à une estimation,
fût-elle approximative, du nombre de civils blessés en conséquence de
faits internationalement illicites commis par l’Ouganda. Elle relève que la
RDC n’a pas produit de preuves appropriées pour corroborer son assertion
voulant que 30 000 civils aient été blessés en Ituri. La Cour réaffirme
néanmoins ses conclusions quant à la situation difficile prévalant en RDC
et à l’incidence de cette situation sur la capacité du demandeur à rapporter
le type de preuves normalement attendues dans le cadre de demandes
relatives à des atteintes aux personnes (voir les paragraphes 120‑126
ci-
dessus).
Elle estime que les éléments de preuve disponibles confirment
tout au moins qu’un nombre considérable d’atteintes se sont produites
dans de nombreuses localités.
*
180. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation, la Cour note que la RDC réclame
des montants forfaitaires de 3500 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne
pour les blessures résultant d’attaques délibérées contre des civils et de
150 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les blessures légères résultant d’actes délibérés.
En ce qui concerne les atteintes « collatérales », la RDC demande
un minimum de 100 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne. Elle n’apporte
pas de preuves convaincantes que ces montants sont déduits des sommes
moyennes adjugées par ses juridictions dans le contexte de la perpétration
de crimes internationaux graves. La Cour ne perd pas de vue que la
somme demandée pour les atteintes « collatérales » est destinée à couvrir
les frais médicaux et la perte de revenu et, dans une moindre mesure seulement,
la réparation du préjudice moral, alors que les blessures et mutilations
résultant d’attaques directes contre des civils justifieraient des
indemnités plus élevées en raison du traumatisme et du préjudice psychologique
qui y sont associés. Néanmoins, l’allocation d’indemnités élevées
à raison d’un préjudice moral peut être inappropriée dans les situations
où il existe un nombre important de victimes non identifiées ou hypothétiques
(voir le paragraphe 164 ci‑dessus). La Cour relève en outre qu’il est
difficile de faire une distinction entre blessures graves et blessures légères,
car rien ne permet d’en déterminer la part respective.
*
armed activities (judgment) 75
66
troops in Beni were “arbitrarily detain[ing] large numbers of people and
subject[ing] them to torture and various other cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatments” (Mapping Report, para. 349). In addition, the Report mentions
the torture of civilians and a human rights activist in the town of Buta
(ibid., para. 402). However, while these examples indicate that deliberate
attacks against and mistreatment of civilians by Ugandan forces, sometimes
amounting to torture, were not confined to Ituri or Kisangani, the
Mapping Report cannot serve as a reliable basis to determine the extent of
such acts in other locations for the purpose of awarding compensation.
179. On the basis of the evidence reviewed, the Court is unable to
determine, with a sufficient level of certainty, even an approximate estimate
of the number of civilians injured by internationally wrongful acts
of Uganda. The Court notes that the DRC has failed to produce appropriate
evidence to corroborate its claim that 30,000 civilians were injured
in Ituri. However, the Court reiterates its conclusions with regard to the
difficult circumstances prevailing in the DRC and their effect on the ability
of the Applicant to furnish the kind of evidence normally expected in
claims relating to personal injuries (see paragraphs 120‑126 above). The
Court considers that the available evidence at least confirms the occurrence
of a significant number of injuries in many localities.
*
180. Regarding valuation, the Court notes that the DRC claims fixed
amounts of US$3,500 per person for injuries resulting from deliberate
attacks on civilians, and US$150 for minor deliberate injuries. With
regard to “collateral” injuries, the DRC seeks a minimum of US$100 per
person. The DRC does not provide convincing evidence that these figures
are derived from the average amounts awarded by Congolese courts in
the context of the perpetration of serious international crimes. The Court
is mindful of the fact that the proposed sum for “collateral” injuries is
intended to cover medical costs and loss of income and only to a lesser
extent compensation for non‑material harm, whereas injuries and mutilation
from direct attacks on civilians would justify higher awards because
of the associated trauma and psychological harm. However, large awards
for non‑material harm may be inappropriate in situations involving significant
numbers of unidentified and hypothetical victims (see paragraph
164 above). Furthermore, the Court notes that it is difficult to draw
any distinction between serious and minor injuries since there is no basis
to determine their respective proportions.
*
76 activités armées (arrêt)
67
181. La Cour rappelle qu’elle peut, dans les circonstances très particulières
de la présente affaire, adjuger une indemnisation sous la forme
d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les éléments
de preuve et compte tenu de considérations d’équité (voir le paragraphe
106 ci-
dessus).
Elle relève que les preuves disponibles en ce qui
concerne les atteintes aux personnes sont moins tangibles que celles se
rapportant aux pertes en vies humaines, et qu’il est impossible de déterminer,
fût‑ce approximativement, le nombre de blessés pour lesquels l’Ouganda
doit réparation. La Cour ne peut que constater qu’un nombre
considérable de ces atteintes se sont produites et que des caractéristiques
locales peuvent être décelées (voir le paragraphe 179 ci‑dessus). Tenant
compte de l’ensemble des éléments versés au dossier (voir les paragraphes
168‑178 ci‑dessus), des différentes méthodes proposées pour chiffrer
le préjudice que représentent les atteintes aux personnes (voir le
paragraphe 180 ci-
dessus),
et de sa jurisprudence ainsi que des décisions
d’autres organismes internationaux (voir les paragraphes 69-126 ci-dessus),
la Cour adjugera une indemnisation pour les atteintes aux personnes
dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des
dommages causés aux personnes (voir le paragraphe 226 ci‑dessous).
3. Viols et violences sexuelles
182. La RDC demande 33 458 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis à titre d’indemnisation
pour 1710 victimes de viols et de violences sexuelles en Ituri
et pour 30 victimes de tels actes dans d’autres parties de son territoire,
notamment à Kisangani.
183. La RDC reconnaît que la commission d’enquête congolaise n’a
pu répertorier que 342 cas de viols en Ituri, lesquels sont recensés par les
fiches d’identification de victimes. Elle classe ces cas en 122 viols (qu’elle
appelle « viols simples ») et 220 « viols aggravés », puis multiplie le total
par cinq et parvient ainsi au nombre de 1710 victimes (610 viols et
1100 « viols aggravés »). Elle justifie cette méthode de calcul en faisant
valoir que les violences sexuelles étaient une arme de guerre très répandue
en Ituri et ne sont en général pas dénoncées en raison de la stigmatisation
sociale qui y est associée. Elle ajoute à ce nombre 18 cas de viols à Kisangani,
10 à Butembo, et deux à Beni, tels que rapportés par la commission
d’enquête congolaise.
184. S’agissant de l’évaluation, la RDC affirme que, dans le contexte de
crimes internationaux graves, les juridictions congolaises ont accordé en
moyenne des sommes de 12 600 dollars des Etats‑Unis dans les cas de viol
et de 23 200 dollars des Etats‑Unis dans les cas de « viol aggravé ». Elle
soutient également que le préjudice moral subi en cas de violences sexuelles
est particulièrement important et qu’il est souvent aggravé par l’ostracisation
des victimes par les membres de leur famille ou la société en général.
*
armed activities (judgment) 76
67
181. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances
of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum,
within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into
account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court
notes that the available evidence for personal injuries is less substantial
than that for loss of life, and that it is impossible to determine, even
approximately, the number of persons injured as to whom Uganda owes
reparation. The Court can only find that a significant number of such
injuries occurred and that local patterns can be detected (see paragraph
179 above). Taking into account all the available evidence (see
paragraphs 168‑178 above), the methodologies proposed to assign a value
to personal injuries (see paragraph 180 above), as well as its jurisprudence
and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs
69‑126 above), the Court will award compensation for personal
injuries as part of a global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph
226 below).
3. Rape and sexual violence
182. The DRC seeks US$33,458,000 in compensation for 1,710 victims
of rape and sexual violence in Ituri and for 30 victims of such acts in
other parts of the DRC, including Kisangani.
183. The DRC acknowledges that the Congolese Commission of
Inquiry was able to identify no more than 342 cases of rape in Ituri, as
recorded by the victim identification forms. The DRC categorizes these
cases into 122 cases of rape (which the DRC refers to as “viol simple”)
and 220 cases of “aggravated rape”. The DRC then multiplies the number
of 342 by five and arrives at 1,710 victims (610 cases of rape and
1,100 cases of “aggravated rape”). The DRC justifies this method of calculation
by arguing that sexual violence was a widespread weapon of war
in Ituri and that it is commonly underreported because of the social
stigma attached to it. To this figure, the DRC adds 18 cases of rape in
Kisangani, 10 in Butembo, and two in Beni, as reported by the Congolese
Commission of Inquiry.
184. With respect to valuation, the DRC claims that, in the context of
serious international crimes, Congolese courts have on average awarded
sums of US$12,600 in cases of rape and US$23,200 in cases of
“aggravated
rape”. The DRC further submits that the non‑material injury
suffered by the victims of sexual violence is particularly significant and
that it is aggravated by the frequent ostracization of the victims by their
family members or society in general.
*
77 activités armées (arrêt)
68
185. L’Ouganda fait valoir que les cas de viols et de violences sexuelles
ne sont pas mentionnés dans l’arrêt rendu par la Cour en 2005 et que, par
conséquent, la RDC ne devrait pas pouvoir demander une indemnisation
pour de tels actes.
186. Le défendeur soutient aussi que la RDC n’a pas produit d’éléments
de preuve permettant d’étayer le nombre de viols qui auraient eu
lieu en Ituri ou ailleurs. A cet égard, il critique derechef les fiches d’identification
de victimes et l’utilisation de multiplicateurs.
187. L’Ouganda déclare que la RDC n’indique aucune source au
soutien
de la thèse selon laquelle l’indemnisation pour les violences
sexuelles devrait être déterminée par référence aux décisions rendues par
les juridictions congolaises. De plus, il est d’avis que les décisions de ces
juridictions ne viennent pas étayer les montants moyens avancés par
la RDC.
* *
188. La Cour relève qu’elle a dit, dans son arrêt de 2005, que l’Ouganda
avait violé les obligations lui incombant en vertu du droit international
humanitaire et du droit international relatif aux droits de l’homme,
notamment au travers d’actes de torture et d’autres formes de traitement
inhumain (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 241, par. 211). Les juridictions pénales
internationales ainsi que les juridictions et organismes compétents en
matière de droits de l’homme considèrent que le viol et les autres actes de
violence sexuelle commis dans le contexte d’un conflit armé peuvent
constituer des infractions graves aux conventions de Genève ou des
violations
des lois et coutumes de la guerre, et peuvent également
constituer
une forme de torture et de traitement inhumain (Le Procureur
c. Kunarac et al., affaire IT‑96‑23 et IT‑96‑23/1‑A, Tribunal pénal international
pour l’ex‑Yougoslavie, chambre d’appel, arrêt du 12 juin 2002,
p. 46‑47, par 149-151 ; Mme A. c. Bosnie‑Herzégovine (Nations Unies,
Comité contre la torture, communication no 854/2017, décision du
2 août 2019, doc. CAT/C/67/D/854/2017), par. 7.3 ; pour ce qui est de la
pratique régionale, voir notamment Commission africaine des droits de
l’homme et des peuples, observation générale no 4 sur la Charte africaine
des droits de l’homme et des peuples concernant le droit à réparation des
victimes de torture et autres peines ou traitements cruels, inhumains ou
dégradants (art. 5), p. 17‑18, par. 57‑58). La Cour estime par conséquent
que l’Ouganda peut être tenu de verser une indemnité pour des actes de
viol et de violence sexuelle, dans la mesure où ils sont étayés par les éléments
de preuve pertinents, même si elle n’a pas mentionné expressément
ces actes dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 2005 (voir le paragraphe 131
ci-
dessus).
189. En ce qui concerne les éléments de preuve invoqués par la RDC à
l’appui de sa demande, la Cour réaffirme que les fiches d’identification de
victimes fournies par la RDC ont une force probante limitée (voir les
paragraphes 146-147 ci‑dessus). Elle garde à l’esprit que les victimes de
armed activities (judgment) 77
68
185. Uganda argues that instances of rape and sexual violence are not
mentioned in the 2005 Judgment, and that, therefore, the DRC should be
precluded from claiming compensation for such acts.
186. Uganda also maintains that the DRC has failed to produce evidence
to support the number of rapes alleged to have occurred in Ituri or
elsewhere. In this regard, Uganda reiterates its criticism of the victim
identification forms and the use of multipliers.
187. Uganda states that the DRC provides no authority for the proposition
that compensation for sexual violence should be determined by reference
to decisions rendered by Congolese courts. Moreover, Uganda is
of the view that the decisions of those courts do not support the average
figures put forward by the DRC.
* *
188. The Court notes that, in its 2005 Judgment, Uganda was found to
be responsible for violations of its obligations under international humanitarian
law and international human rights law, including by acts of torture
and other forms of inhuman treatment (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241,
para. 211). International criminal tribunals as well as human rights courts
and bodies have recognized that rape and other acts of sexual violence
committed in the context of armed conflict may amount to grave breaches
of the Geneva Conventions or violations of the laws and customs of war,
and that they may also constitute a form of torture and inhuman treatment
(The Prosecutor v. Kunarac et al., IT‑96‑23 and IT‑96‑23/1‑A,
International
Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Appeals
Chamber, Judgement of 12 June 2002, pp. 46‑47, paras. 149‑151;
Mrs. A. v. Bosnia and Herzegovina (United Nations, Committee against
Torture, Communication No. 854/2017, decision of 2 August 2019,
UN doc. CAT/C/67/D/854/2017), para. 7.3; as to regional practice, see
e.g. African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, General Comment
No. 4 on the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: The
Right to Redress for Victims of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Punishment or Treatment (Art. 5), pp. 17‑18, paras. 57‑58).
The Court therefore considers that Uganda can be required to pay compensation
for acts of rape and sexual violence, to the extent substantiated
by the relevant evidence, even though such acts were not mentioned specifically
in the 2005 Judgment (see paragraph 131 above).
189. Concerning the evidentiary basis of the DRC’s claim, the Court
reiterates that the victim identification forms provided by the DRC are of
little probative value (see paragraphs 146‑147 above). The Court is mindful
that victims of sexual violence often experience psychological trauma
78 activités armées (arrêt)
69
violences sexuelles subissent fréquemment un traumatisme psychologique
et une stigmatisation sociale, et que de telles violences sont donc souvent
passées sous silence et notoirement difficiles à prouver (voir CREE,
Sentence
finale, Réclamations de l’Ethiopie, décision du 17 août 2009, RSA,
vol. XXVI, p. 675‑676, par. 104‑105). Elle n’estime toutefois pas
approprié
de recourir à des multiplicateurs non fondés pour surmonter les
difficultés
en la matière. Par conséquent, même si les 342 cas de violences
sexuelles qui ressortent, selon la RDC, des fiches d’identification de
victimes
étaient jugés dûment étayés, la Cour ne pourrait pas considérer
que le nombre de 1740 cas avancé par la RDC est suffisamment
établi.
190. La Cour estime qu’il est impossible de déduire des rapports et des
autres données dont elle dispose une estimation, même générale, du
nombre de victimes de viols et d’autres formes de violence sexuelle.
L’absence
de documentation adéquate a d’ailleurs été constatée par les
auteurs des différents rapports de l’ONU. Dans le rapport spécial de la
MONUC sur les événements d’Ituri, par exemple, il est indiqué
qu’« [i]l est impossible pour le moment de fournir une estimation du
nombre de femmes qui ont été violées ou mises en esclavage sexuel »
(Nations Unies, doc. S/2004/573 du 16 juillet 2004, par. 1). De même, le
rapport Mapping souligne ses propres insuffisances dans le domaine des
violences sexuelles :
« Conscients que l’usage d’une telle méthodologie ne permettrait
pas de rendre pleinement justice aux nombreuses victimes de violences
sexuelles ni de refléter comme il se doit l’emploi généralisé de
cette forme de violence par tous les groupes armés impliqués dans les
différents conflits en RDC, il a été décidé, dès le départ, de rechercher
des informations et des documents étayant la commission des
violences sexuelles dans certains contextes plutôt que de chercher à
confirmer chaque cas individuel, les victimes étant malheureusement
trop nombreuses et dispersées sur l’ensemble du territoire. » (Rapport
Mapping, par. 535.)
191. La Cour estime toutefois qu’il ne fait aucun doute que des viols et
d’autres formes de violence sexuelle ont été perpétrés en RDC à grande
échelle et de manière généralisée. Le rapport Mapping fait état de « l’emploi
généralisé de cette forme de violence par tous les groupes armés » et
rappelle que les victimes étaient « nombreuses » (ibid., voir aussi par. 35
et 530). Il donne divers exemples de viols commis en Ituri pendant la
période d’occupation, dans lesquels des membres des UPDF et d’autres
groupes armés étaient impliqués (ibid., par. 405, 408-409, 416 et 419), et
hors Ituri par des membres des UPDF (ibid., par. 330 et 443). Dans le
rapport spécial de la MONUC sur les événements d’Ituri, il est fait observer
que, dans cette région, « [d]’innombrables femmes ont été enlevées,
les unes pour être gardées comme « épouses de guerre » et les autres pour
être violées ou soumises à des sévices sexuels avant d’être relâchées »
(Nations Unies, doc. S/2004/573 du 16 juillet 2004, par. 1). La CPI a jugé
armed activities (judgment) 78
69
and social stigma, and that, therefore, such violence is frequently underreported
and notoriously difficult to document (see EECC, Final Award,
Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI,
pp. 675‑676, paras. 104-105). However, the Court does not find it appropriate
to overcome such evidentiary challenges by using unsubstantiated
multipliers. Therefore, even if the 342 cases of sexual violence which are,
according to the DRC, supported by the victim identification forms were
deemed to be adequately substantiated, the Court could not accept the
number of 1,740 such cases claimed by the DRC as being sufficiently
proven.
190. The Court considers that it is impossible to derive even a broad
estimate of the number of victims of rape and other forms of sexual violence
from the reports and other data available to it. This absence of
adequate documentation has also been recognized by various
United Nations reports. The MONUC special report on the events in
Ituri, for example, notes that “[t]he exact number of female victims of
rape or sexual slavery is impossible to estimate at this time”
(UN doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 1). Similarly, the Mapping
Report acknowledges its own shortcomings with regard to sexual violence:
“Aware that such a methodology prevents full justice from being
done to the numerous victims of sexual violence and fails to reflect
appropriately the widespread use of this form of violence by all
armed groups involved in the different conflicts in the DRC, it was
decided from the outset to seek information and documents supporting
the perpetration of sexual violence in certain contexts rather
than seeking to confirm each individual case, the victims being unfortunately
too numerous and dispersed across the whole country.”
(Mapping Report, para. 535.)
191. However, the Court finds that it is beyond doubt that rape and
other forms of sexual violence were committed in the DRC on a large and
widespread scale. The Mapping Report notes “the widespread use of this
form of violence by all armed groups” and reiterates that the victims were
“numerous” (ibid., see also paras. 35 and 530). It provides various examples
of rape in Ituri during the period of occupation involving members
of the UPDF and other armed groups (ibid., paras. 405, 408-409, 416 and
419) and outside Ituri by members of the UPDF (ibid., paras. 330 and
443). The MONUC special report on the events in Ituri observes that in
that area “[c]ountless women were abducted and became ‘war wives’,
while others were raped or sexually abused before being released”
(UN doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 1). The ICC has found that
rape and sexual violence occurred in Ituri during the period in which the
district was occupied by Uganda, and that they amounted to a “common
79 activités armées (arrêt)
70
que des viols et des violences sexuelles avaient eu lieu en Ituri pendant
toute la période où ce district était occupé par l’Ouganda et qu’il
s’agissait
d’une « pratique courante » (Le Procureur c. Bosco Ntaganda,
affaire ICC‑01/04‑02/06, chambre de première instance VI, jugement,
8 juillet 2019, par. 293, 940‑948, 1196 et 1199).
*
192. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation du préjudice subi par les victimes
de viols et de violences sexuelles, la Cour estime que la RDC n’a pas
fourni d’éléments suffisants pour corroborer les montants moyens de
23 200 dollars des Etats‑Unis par victime qui seraient octroyés par les tribunaux
congolais à raison d’un « viol aggravé » et de 12 600 dollars des
Etats‑Unis à raison d’un viol. La Cour prend note d’un rapport d’expert
soumis à la CPI à propos de la situation en RDC qui indique que les
juridictions congolaises tendent à octroyer en moyenne 5000 dollars des
Etats‑Unis par victime dans les affaires de viols (ibid., ordonnance de
réparation, 8 mars 2021, par. 238).
*
193. La Cour rappelle qu’elle peut, dans les circonstances très particulières
de la présente affaire, adjuger une indemnisation sous la forme
d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les éléments
de preuve et compte tenu de considérations d’équité (voir le paragraphe
106 ci-
dessus).
Elle relève que les preuves disponibles en ce qui
concerne les viols et violences sexuelles sont moins tangibles que celles se
rapportant aux pertes en vies humaines, et qu’il est impossible de déterminer,
fût-ce approximativement, le nombre de cas de viols et de violences
sexuelles attribuables à l’Ouganda. La Cour ne peut que constater qu’un
nombre considérable d’atteintes de ce type se sont produites (voir les
paragraphes 190-191 ci‑dessus). Tenant compte de l’ensemble des éléments
versés au dossier (voir les paragraphes 183‑189 ci‑dessus), des
méthodes proposées pour chiffrer le préjudice que représentent les viols et
violences sexuelles (voir le paragraphe 192 ci‑dessus), et de sa jurisprudence
ainsi que des décisions d’autres organismes internationaux (voir les
paragraphes 69-126 ci-
dessus),
la Cour adjugera une indemnisation pour
les viols et violences sexuelles dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée
pour l’ensemble des dommages causés aux personnes (voir le paragraphe
226 ci-
dessous).
4. Recrutement et déploiement d’enfants-soldats
194. La RDC réclame une indemnisation d’un montant de
30 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis à raison du recrutement, par
l’Ouganda et par les groupes armés que celui-
ci soutenait, de 2500 enfants‑soldats.
armed activities (judgment) 79
70
practice” (The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, ICC‑01/04‑02/06, Trial
Chamber VI, Judgment of 8 July 2019, paras. 293, 940‑948, 1196
and 1199).
*
192. Regarding the valuation of the harm suffered by victims of rape
and sexual violence, the Court finds that the DRC has not provided sufficient
evidence that would corroborate the alleged average amounts
awarded by Congolese courts of US$23,200 per victim for “aggravated
rape” and US$12,600 for rape. The Court takes note of an expert report
submitted to the ICC relating to the situation in the DRC, which indicates
that there is an emerging standard in Congolese courts of US$5,000
per victim being awarded in cases of rape (ibid., Reparations Order,
8 March 2021, para. 238).
*
193. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances
of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum,
within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into
account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court
notes that the available evidence for rape and sexual violence is less substantial
than that for loss of life, and that it is not possible to determine
even an approximate number of cases of rape and sexual violence attributable
to Uganda. The Court can only find that a significant number of
such injuries occurred (see paragraphs 190‑191 above). Taking into
account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 183‑189 above), the
methodologies proposed to assign a value to rape and sexual violence (see
paragraph 192 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements
of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69‑126 above), the
Court will award compensation for rape and sexual violence as part of a
global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph 226 below).
4. Recruitment and deployment of child soldiers
194. The DRC claims US$30,000,000 as compensation for the recruitment
of 2,500 child soldiers by Uganda and by armed groups supported
by Uganda.
80 activités armées (arrêt)
71
195. La RDC fonde sa demande sur deux cas particuliers dans lesquels
de tels actes auraient été commis, et l’étaye par trois éléments de preuve
distincts. Premièrement, elle se réfère au sixième rapport du Secrétaire
général sur la MONUC, qui indique que, au cours de l’année 2000, « un
nombre considérable » d’enfants ont été emmenés en Ouganda pour y
suivre un entraînement militaire, dont quelque 600 étaient en passe d’être
transférés à la garde de l’UNICEF ou d’organisations non gouvernementales
(Nations Unies, doc. S/2001/128 du 12 février 2001, par. 66). Deuxièmement,
elle cite la déposition d’un témoin de l’affaire Lubanga devant
la CPI qui parle, semble-t-il, du même transfert mais mentionne le chiffre
de 700 enfants. Troisièmement, elle invoque le rapport Mapping, dans
lequel il est relevé que le MLC s’est livré au recrutement d’enfants-soldats
et a à cet effet « bénéfici[é] de l’appui de l’armée ougandaise », que ce mouvement
a « reconnu avoir 1800 [enfants‑soldats] dans ses rangs » (rapport
Mapping, par. 697) et que « tous les groupes armés de l’Ituri (UPC, FNI,
FRPI, FAPC et PUSIC) ont procédé au recrutement de milliers d’enfants
sur une base communautaire » (ibid., par. 429).
196. La RDC demande une somme forfaitaire de 12 000 dollars des
Etats‑Unis par enfant‑soldat, montant qu’elle prétend tirer de la pratique
des juridictions congolaises.
*
197. L’Ouganda affirme que le chiffre de 600 enfants figurant dans le
sixième rapport du Secrétaire général sur la MONUC est contredit par le
rapport Mapping. Il souligne en outre que, selon le même témoin de l’affaire
Lubanga cité par la RDC, un pourcentage considérable des enfants
concernés étaient âgés de plus de 15 ans et qu’ils ne pouvaient donc être
qualifiés d’enfants-soldats.
198. Le défendeur avance encore que le rapport Mapping ne mentionne
que le recrutement d’enfants-soldats
de la part du MLC, et que
rien dans ce rapport ni dans les autres éléments présentés par la RDC ne
démontre que les enfants-soldats
en question aient été recrutés par lui ou
entraînés dans des camps des UPDF. Selon lui, la RDC ne demande à
être indemnisée à raison du recrutement d’enfants-soldats
qu’en ce qui
concerne l’Ituri. Or, souligne-t-il, le MLC n’y était quasiment pas présent.
L’Ouganda soutient en outre qu’il ne peut être tenu pour responsable des
actes commis par le MLC en dehors du district occupé de l’Ituri, la Cour
ayant conclu, dans son arrêt de 2005, que ce mouvement n’avait pas été
créé par lui et n’était pas sous son contrôle. Il ajoute que le MLC ne fait
pas partie des groupes armés pour les actes desquels la RDC demande
réparation. S’agissant de l’évaluation, il conteste la méthode employée
par la RDC, laquelle apprécie le préjudice causé aux enfants-soldats
par
référence au montant accordé par les juridictions congolaises à raison
d’actes ayant, selon elle, engendré des préjudices similaires.
* *
armed activities (judgment) 80
71
195. The DRC’s claim is based on two specific instances of alleged
recruitment of child soldiers, which it supports with three distinct pieces
of evidence. First, the DRC refers to the United Nations Secretary-General’s
Sixth report on MONUC which indicates that, in 2000, “a considerable
number” of children had been taken for military training to
Uganda, about 600 of whom were about to be transferred to the custody
of UNICEF or non-governmental
organizations (UN doc. S/2001/128 of
12 February 2001, para. 66). Second, the DRC relies on witness testimony
before the ICC in the Lubanga case, allegedly referring to the same
incident and putting the number of transferred children at 700. Third, the
DRC invokes the Mapping Report, which notes that the MLC was
engaged in the recruitment of child soldiers with “the backing of the
Ugandan army”, that the MLC “admitted to having 1,800 [child soldiers]
within its ranks” (Mapping Report, para. 697) and that “all the armed
groups in Ituri (UPC, FNI, FRPI, FAPC and PUSIC) are alleged to have
recruited thousands of children along ethnic lines” (ibid., para. 429).
196. The DRC requests a fixed sum of US$12,000 per child soldier,
deriving this figure from the alleged practice of Congolese courts.
*
197. Uganda asserts that the number of 600 children indicated in the
Secretary-General’s
Sixth report on MONUC is contradicted by the
Mapping Report. Moreover, Uganda argues that the same witness in the
Lubanga case on whom the DRC relies indicated that a significant percentage
of the children involved in this incident were over the age of 15
and could therefore not be classified as child soldiers.
198. Uganda also submits that the Mapping Report refers only to the
recruitment of child soldiers by the MLC and that there is no evidence
either in the Mapping Report or otherwise presented by the DRC demonstrating
that the child soldiers in question were recruited by Uganda or
trained in UPDF training camps. According to Uganda, the DRC claims
compensation for the recruitment of child soldiers only with respect to
Ituri. Uganda points out that the MLC had almost no presence in Ituri.
In addition, Uganda maintains that it cannot be held responsible for acts
of the MLC outside occupied Ituri and that the Court, in its 2005 Judgment,
held that the MLC was neither created nor controlled by Uganda.
Moreover, Uganda highlights that the DRC did not list the MLC among
the armed groups for whose acts it claims reparation. With regard to valuation,
Uganda objects to the DRC’s method of assessing the injury suffered
by child soldiers by reference to the amount awarded by Congolese
courts for acts that the DRC considers have caused similar harm.
* *
81 activités armées (arrêt)
72
199. La Cour a, dans son arrêt de 2005, estimé qu’« il exist[ait] des éléments
de preuve convaincants du fait que des enfants-soldats
[avaie]nt été
entraînés dans les camps d’entraînement des UPDF et que celles-
ci
n’[avaie]nt rien fait pour empêcher leur recrutement dans les zones sous
leur contrôle » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 241, par. 210). La demande de la
RDC entre donc dans le champ de l’arrêt de 2005.
200. La Cour constate qu’il existe peu d’éléments de preuve au soutien
des allégations de la RDC concernant le nombre d’enfants‑soldats recrutés
ou déployés. Elle relève que, selon le sixième rapport du Secrétaire
général sur la MONUC, des organisations humanitaires s’apprêtaient à
rapatrier 600 enfants qui avaient apparemment été transférés à des fins
d’entraînement militaire en Ouganda au cours de l’année 2000. Ce rapport
rappelle en particulier ce qui suit :
« Comme indiqué dans mon rapport du 6 décembre 2000, un
nombre considérable d’enfants congolais recrutés dans les régions de
Bunia, Beni et Butembo ont été emmenés, apparemment pour entraînement
militaire, en Ouganda (par. 75). On s’est inquiété de la possibilité
que ces enfants ne soient redéployés comme soldats en
République démocratique du Congo. Au moment où on mettait la
dernière main au présent rapport, on a appris que 600 de ces enfants
seraient transférés à la garde d’organisations humanitaires la semaine
prochaine. » (Nations Unies, doc. S/2001/128 du 12 février 2001,
par. 66.)
La Cour prend également note du rapport spécial de la MONUC sur
les événements d’Ituri, selon lequel « [d]es milliers d’enfants âgés de 7
à 17 ans ont été enrôlés de force ou volontairement par des groupes
armés » (Nations Unies, doc. S/2004/573 du 16 juillet 2004, par. 1). Ce
rapport contient diverses indications qui confirment qu’un grand nombre
d’enfants ont été recrutés ou déployés comme enfants-soldats
en Ituri
(ibid., par. 39, 147 et 148). De même, le rapport Mapping indique que,
« [s]elon les estimations des agences de protection de l’enfant qui travaillent
dans le domaine du désarmement, de la démobilisation et de la
réintégration (DDR) des enfants, au moins 30 000 enfants ont été recrutés
ou utilisés par des forces ou groupes armés pendant le conflit » (rapport
Mapping, par. 673).
201. La Cour prend note du fait que l’Ouganda invoque le rapport
Mapping, selon lequel seuls 163 enfants ont finalement été rapatriés (ibid.,
par. 429). Elle relève toutefois que, dans le passage pertinent, il est indiqué
que, en 2000, « 163 au moins de ces enfants ont été envoyés en
Ouganda suivre une formation militaire dans le camp des UPDF à
Kyankwanzi avant d’être finalement rapatriés en Ituri par l’UNICEF en
février 2001 » (ibid.). De l’avis de la Cour, cela signifie que, sur un nombre
plus élevé d’enfants, 163 ont finalement été rapatriés par l’UNICEF en
Ituri en 2001.
202. Cette lecture du rapport Mapping est confortée par une déposition
faite devant la CPI au sujet des mêmes événements. Dans l’affaire
armed activities (judgment) 81
72
199. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that “there [was] convincing
evidence of the training in UPDF training camps of child soldiers and
of the UPDF’s failure to prevent the recruitment of child soldiers in areas
under its control” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 210). The DRC’s
claim is thus encompassed by the 2005 Judgment.
200. The Court finds that there is limited evidence supporting the
DRC’s claims regarding the number of child soldiers recruited or
deployed. The Court notes that the Secretary-General’s
Sixth report on
MONUC found that, in the year 2000, 600 children who had apparently
been transferred for military training to Uganda were soon to be repatriated
by humanitarian organizations. In particular, the report recalls:
“As indicated in my 6 December 2000 report, a considerable number
of Congolese children were taken from the Bunia, Beni and
Butembo region, apparently for military training in Uganda (para. 75).
Concern has been expressed at the possibility that these children will
be deployed back to the Democratic Republic of the Congo as soldiers.
As the present report was being finalized, information was
received that 600 children would be transferred to the custody of
humanitarian organizations next week.” (UN doc. S/2001/128 of
12 February 2001, para. 66).
Furthermore, the Court takes note of the MONUC special report on
the events in Ituri, according to which “[t]housands of children aged
from 7 to 17 were drawn forcibly or voluntarily into armed groups”
(UN doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 1). This report contains various
indications which confirm that a significant number of children were
recruited or deployed as child soldiers in Ituri (ibid., paras. 39, 147 and
148). The Mapping Report also indicates that “[a]ccording to child protection
agencies working in the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration
(DDR) of children, at least 30,000 children were recruited or used by
the armed forces or groups during the conflict” (Mapping Report,
para. 673).
201. The Court takes note of Uganda’s reliance on the Mapping
Report, according to which, ultimately, only 163 children were repatriated
(ibid., para. 429). However, the relevant section of the Mapping
Report notes that in 2000 “at least 163 of these children were sent to
Uganda to undergo military training at a UPDF camp in Kyankwanzi
before finally being repatriated to Ituri by UNICEF in February 2001”
(ibid.). The Court reads the Mapping Report to mean that 163 out of a
larger number of children were ultimately repatriated by UNICEF to
Ituri in 2001.
202. This reading of the Mapping Report is supported by witness testimony
concerning the same events in the Lubanga trial at the ICC. In
82 activités armées (arrêt)
73
Lubanga, le témoin P-0116 a rappelé que l’accusé avait, en 2000, envoyé
des enfants en Ouganda :
« P-0116, qui était basé à Bunia peu avant la période visée par les
charges, a rapporté qu’on lui avait dit que l’accusé avait envoyé des
enfants en Ouganda au cours de l’été 2000, et que Thomas Lubanga
était avec eux au camp… Certaines des personnes qui ont assisté au
transfert de ces quelque 700 jeunes vers l’Ouganda ont rapporté à
P-0116 que les jeunes avaient été emmenés à bord d’avions cargo
ougandais, et qu’il leur semblait que l’accusé était en contact avec
les autorités militaires ougandaises, qui lui ont apporté l’appui militaire
nécessaire. » (Le Procureur c. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo,
affaire ICC‑01/04‑01/06, chambre de première instance I, jugement
rendu en application de l’article 74 du Statut, 14 mars 2012, par. 1031
et 1033.)
203. La Cour note, comme le relève l’Ouganda, que le témoin P-0116
n’a pas directement assisté aux faits en question et rappelle qu’elle n’accorde
guère de valeur probante aux témoignages par ouï-dire (Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua
c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 42, par. 68 ;
Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1949, p. 16‑17). Elle garde toutefois à l’esprit que le témoin a été
considéré comme crédible par une chambre de première instance de la
CPI, et que son compte rendu des événements coïncide avec celui figurant
dans le rapport Mapping.
204. Concernant l’aide que l’Ouganda aurait apportée au recrutement
et au déploiement d’enfants-soldats
par le MLC, le rapport Mapping
indique que « [l]’armée du MLC, l’ALC, qui bénéficiait de l’appui de l’armée
ougandaise, [les] UPDF, aurait également recruté des enfants, essentiellement
à Mbandaka dans la province de l’Equateur » (rapport
Mapping, par. 697). Ce rapport mentionne également que le MLC a
reconnu, en 2001, qu’il comptait dans ses rangs 1800 enfants‑soldats
(ibid.). La Cour n’est pas convaincue par l’argument de l’Ouganda voulant
que la RDC ait géographiquement limité sa demande à l’Ituri. S’il est
vrai que, dans certains passages de son mémoire, la RDC semble soutenir
que les 2500 enfants‑soldats recrutés l’ont tous été en Ituri, elle indique
ailleurs dans cette même pièce qu’« il est aussi fait état de telles pratiques
dans d’autres régions, dont la province de l’Equateur ».
*
205. Pour ce qui est de l’évaluation du préjudice causé s’agissant des
enfants-soldats,
la Cour constate que la RDC n’a fourni aucun élément
prouvant la réalité des sommes supposément adjugées par les juridictions
congolaises. Elle relève également que l’expert qu’elle a désigné suggère
d’évaluer le préjudice subi par les enfants-soldats
en s’inspirant des réclamations
de la catégorie E de la CINU. Or, cette catégorie concerne les
armed activities (judgment) 82
73
this case, witness P‑0116 recalled that, in 2000, the accused had sent children
to Uganda:
“P‑0116, who was based in Bunia during the period shortly before
the time frame of the charges, testified he was told that the accused
had sent children to Uganda during the summer of 2000, and that
Mr. Lubanga was with them at the camp . . . Some of those who
witnessed this transfer of about 700 youths to Uganda told P‑0116
they had been taken on Ugandan cargo planes, and it appeared that
the accused was in contact with the Ugandan military authorities who
gave him the necessary military support.” (The Prosecutor v. Thomas
Lubanga Dyilo, ICC‑01/04‑01/06, Trial Chamber I, Judgment pursuant
to Article 74 of the Statute, 14 March 2012, paras. 1031 and 1033.)
203. The Court notes Uganda’s point that P‑0116 was not an eyewitness
and recalls that it affords limited evidentiary weight to hearsay
testimony (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1986, p. 42, para. 68; Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 16‑17). However, the Court is also
mindful of the fact that the witness was assessed as credible by an ICC
Trial Chamber and that his or her description of the events matches the
one set out in the Mapping Report.
204. Regarding the alleged support provided by Uganda for the
recruitment and deployment of child soldiers by the MLC, the Mapping
Report notes that “[t]he MLC’s army, the ALC, with the backing of the
Ugandan Army, the UPDF, allegedly also recruited children, primarily in
Mbandaka, Equateur Province” (Mapping Report, para. 697). This
report also mentions that, in 2001, the MLC admitted to having
1,800 child soldiers within its ranks (ibid.). The Court is not convinced
by Uganda’s argument that the DRC has limited its claim geographically
to Ituri. While it is true that some parts of the DRC’s Memorial give the
impression that all 2,500 instances of the recruitment of child soldiers are
claimed to have occurred in Ituri, other sections note that “such practices
were also reported in other regions, including the province of Equateur”.
*
205. Concerning the valuation of the harm caused with respect to child
soldiers, the Court observes that the DRC did not provide evidence for
the sums allegedly awarded by Congolese courts. The Court further notes
that the Court‑appointed expert suggested basing the valuation of the
injury suffered by child soldiers on an analogy with the UNCC Category
E claims. However, this category pertained to individuals who had
83 activités armées (arrêt)
74
personnes prises en otage ou détenues illégalement, et ne reflète donc pas
le préjudice matériel et le traumatisme psychologique subis par les enfants-soldats
en RDC. La Cour fait en outre observer que, dans l’affaire
Lubanga, la chambre de première instance de la CPI a fixé ex aequo et
bono à 8000 dollars des Etats‑Unis le montant de l’indemnisation due aux
victimes d’un tel recrutement, tout en tenant notamment compte des décisions
des juridictions congolaises (Le Procureur c. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo,
affaire ICC‑01/04‑01/06, décision fixant le montant des réparations auxquelles
Thomas Lubanga Dyilo est tenu, chambre de première instance II,
21 décembre 2017, par. 259). Dans le cadre de la présente procédure relative
aux réparations, ces méthodes ne fournissent pas de base suffisante
pour permettre à la Cour d’attribuer un montant spécifique au dommage
subi à raison de chaque enfant-soldat.
*
206. La Cour rappelle qu’elle peut, dans les circonstances très particulières
de la présente affaire, adjuger une indemnisation sous la forme
d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les éléments
de preuve et compte tenu de considérations d’équité (voir le paragraphe
106 ci‑dessus). Elle relève qu’une échelle de valeurs du nombre
possible de victimes à raison desquelles l’Ouganda doit réparation se
dégage des éléments disponibles en ce qui concerne le recrutement et le
déploiement d’enfants-soldats
(voir les paragraphes 200-204 ci-
dessus).
Tenant compte de l’ensemble des éléments versés au dossier (voir les
paragraphes 195‑204 ci-
dessus),
des méthodes proposées pour chiffrer le
préjudice que représentent le recrutement et le déploiement d’enfants‑soldats
(voir le paragraphe 205 ci-
dessus),
et de sa jurisprudence ainsi
que des décisions d’autres organismes internationaux (voir les paragraphes
69‑126 ci-
dessus),
la Cour adjugera une indemnisation pour le
recrutement et le déploiement d’enfants-soldats
dans le cadre d’une
somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages causés aux personnes
(voir le paragraphe 226 ci‑dessous).
5. Déplacements de population
207. La RDC réclame une indemnisation de 186 853 800 dollars des
Etats‑Unis à raison des fuites et des déplacements de population survenus
en Ituri et ailleurs sur son territoire.
208. La RDC évalue à 600 000 le nombre de personnes contraintes de
fuir leur ville ou leur village du fait de l’inexécution par l’Ouganda des
obligations lui incombant en tant que puissance occupante en Ituri entre
1998 et 2003. Elle justifie ce chiffre en se référant en particulier au deuxième
rapport spécial du Secrétaire général sur la MONUC, au rapport
spécial de la MONUC sur les événements d’Ituri et au rapport Mapping.
209. La RDC ajoute que, dans d’autres parties de son territoire également,
nombreux sont ceux qui ont été contraints de fuir pour échapper aux
armed activities (judgment) 83
74
been taken as hostages or were illegally detained, and did not, therefore,
reflect the material injury and psychological trauma sustained by child
soldiers in the DRC. The Court further observes that, in the Lubanga
case, the ICC Trial Chamber set the amount of compensation for such a
victim ex aequo et bono at US$8,000, taking into account, inter alia, decisions
of Congolese courts (The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo,
ICC‑01/04‑01/06, Trial Chamber II, Decision Setting the Size of the Reparations
Award for which Thomas Lubanga Dyilo Is Liable, 21 December
2017, para. 259). In the framework of the present reparation
proceedings, these methodologies do not provide a sufficient basis for
assigning a specific valuation of damage in respect of a child soldier.
*
206. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances
of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum,
within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into
account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court
notes that the available evidence for the recruitment and deployment of
child soldiers provides a range of the possible number of victims in relation
to whom Uganda owes reparation (see paragraphs 200-204 above).
Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 195‑204
above), the methodologies proposed to assign a value to the damage
caused by the recruitment and deployment of child soldiers (see paragraph
205 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the pronouncements of
other international bodies (see paragraphs 69-126 above), the Court will
award compensation for the recruitment and deployment of child soldiers
as part of a global sum for all damage to persons (see paragraph 226
below).
5. Displacement of populations
207. The DRC claims US$186,853,800 in compensation for the flight
and displacement of parts of the population in Ituri and elsewhere in the
DRC.
208. The DRC estimates that 600,000 persons were forced to flee their
town or village as a consequence of Uganda’s failure to comply with its
obligations as an occupying Power in Ituri between 1998 and 2003. To
substantiate its claim, the DRC refers, in particular, to the Secretary-General’s
Second special report on MONUC, the MONUC special report
on the events in Ituri, and the Mapping Report.
209. The DRC further submits that many people were forced to flee in
order to escape the impact of the war in other parts of the DRC. How-
84 activités armées (arrêt)
75
conséquences de la guerre. Elle souligne toutefois qu’« [a]ucun chiffre précis
ne peut … être déduit » des documents disponibles, et limite donc sa réclamation
à 433 personnes déplacées à Beni, 93 à Butembo et 12 à Gemena, ce
qui correspond aux cas qui auraient été recensés et consignés dans les fiches
d’identification de victimes de la commission d’enquête congolaise. Se fondant
sur le rapport de la mission interinstitutions, la RDC affirme encore
que 68 000 personnes ont fui les affrontements entre troupes ougandaises et
troupes rwandaises à Kisangani. Elle réclame en conséquence une indemnisation
pour un nombre total de 668 538 personnes déplacées.
210. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation des dommages que constituent ces
fuites et déplacements, la RDC avance qu’il convient d’opérer une distinction
entre les personnes ayant fui leur domicile afin d’échapper aux
actes de violence délibérés contre les populations civiles et celles qui ont
été chassées de chez elles par les combats. Selon elle, le premier cas de
figure concerne essentiellement l’Ituri et devrait donner lieu à une indemnisation
de 300 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne, soit la somme totale
de 180 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis. Dans le second cas de figure, qui
s’appliquerait à des déplacements de plus courte durée survenus en dehors
de l’Ituri, principalement à Kisangani, le préjudice qui en a résulté devrait
être évalué à 100 dollars des Etats‑Unis par personne, ce qui aboutirait à
la somme totale de 6 853 800 dollars des Etats‑Unis. La RDC affirme que
les sommes réclamées sont destinées à couvrir le préjudice matériel
([nombre de jours de déplacement] × [coût quotidien de la vie]) ainsi que
le préjudice moral sous forme de somme forfaitaire.
*
211. L’Ouganda reproche à la RDC de fonder sa demande sur des estimations
générales, et non sur une analyse au cas par cas portant sur des
groupes précis de personnes déplacées dans des lieux et à des dates déterminées.
Il affirme qu’elle déduit le nombre de personnes qui auraient été
déplacées en Ituri d’une estimation non étayée figurant dans un unique
rapport de l’ONU. Il fait valoir, en outre, que rien ne prouve qu’il ait
causé ces déplacements par des manoeuvres délibérées visant à faire fuir la
population, ni que ceux-
ci aient résulté directement d’un manquement de
sa part au jus ad bellum. En ce qui concerne l’Ituri, la RDC n’a, selon
l’Ouganda, pas non plus démontré qu’il aurait suffi qu’il fasse preuve de
la diligence voulue pour empêcher les déplacements allégués.
212. S’agissant de la situation à Kisangani, l’Ouganda souligne que les
auteurs du rapport Mapping n’ont pas retenu l’estimation de la mission
interinstitutions, selon laquelle 68 000 personnes auraient été déplacées,
se contentant de mentionner à cet égard des « milliers de personnes ».
Pour ce qui est des déplacements survenus dans d’autres parties de la
RDC, il réaffirme que les fiches d’identification de victimes ne constituent
pas des éléments de preuve crédibles.
213. Quant à l’évaluation du préjudice résultant des déplacements de
personnes, l’Ouganda soutient que la RDC n’a pas expliqué, si ce n’est en
armed activities (judgment) 84
75
ever, the DRC also asserts that since it would “not [be] possible to derive
any exact figures from” the records, it has limited its claim to 433 cases of
displacement in Beni, 93 in Butembo and 12 in Gemena. These instances
are allegedly identified and recorded in the victim identification forms collected
by the Congolese Commission of Inquiry. In addition, relying on
the Inter‑Agency Report, the DRC asserts that 68,000 persons were internally
displaced as a result of the confrontations between Ugandan and
Rwandan troops in Kisangani. The DRC thus claims compensation for a
total of 668,538 displaced persons.
210. Regarding the valuation of these cases of flight and displacement,
the DRC submits that a distinction must be made between the situation
of persons who fled their homes in order to escape deliberate acts of violence
against civilian populations and the situation of those who were
driven from their homes by the fighting. According to the DRC, the first
of these scenarios mainly occurred in Ituri and should be compensated by
a sum of US$300 per person, amounting to a total of US$180,000,000.
The second scenario allegedly applies to those who fled their homes for
shorter periods in areas outside Ituri, mainly in Kisangani, and the ensuing
damage should be valued at US$100 per person, amounting to a total
of US$6,853,800. The DRC explains that these sums are meant to reflect
the material harm ([days of displacement] × [daily cost of living]) combined
with a lump sum for moral injury suffered.
*
211. Uganda criticizes the DRC’s claim for being based on broad estimates
and not on a case‑by‑case analysis relating to specific groups of
persons displaced in identifiable locations on specific dates. Uganda
asserts that the DRC derives the number of allegedly displaced persons in
Ituri from an unsubstantiated estimate in a single United Nations report.
Furthermore, Uganda submits that there is no evidence indicating that
such displacements occurred as a result of deliberate efforts by Uganda to
make civilians flee or were a direct result of Uganda’s violation of the jus
ad bellum. According to Uganda, with respect to Ituri, the DRC has also
failed to show that Uganda’s exercise of due diligence obligations would
have sufficed to prevent the alleged displacement.
212. Regarding the situation in Kisangani, Uganda highlights that the
Mapping Report did not adopt the estimate of 68,000 displaced persons
contained in the Inter‑Agency Report, stating merely that “thousands of
people” had been displaced. With respect to displacement in other parts
of the DRC, Uganda reiterates that the victim identification forms are
not credible evidence.
213. With regard to the valuation of the injury resulting from the displacement
of persons, Uganda submits that the DRC has not explained,
85 activités armées (arrêt)
76
affirmant qu’ils sont raisonnables, pourquoi les montants de 300 et de
100 dollars des Etats‑Unis devraient être retenus pour évaluer les dommages
causés, respectivement, aux personnes ayant fui les actes de violence
délibérés et aux autres personnes déplacées.
* *
214. La Cour rappelle que, dans son arrêt de 2005, elle a jugé que l’Ouganda
avait engagé sa responsabilité à raison d’attaques aveugles et délibérées
contre la population civile et pour n’avoir pas protégé celle-
ci au
cours d’affrontements avec d’autres combattants (C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 241, par. 211). Elle a également jugé que l’Ouganda ne s’était pas
acquitté des obligations lui incombant en tant que puissance occupante et
avait incité au conflit ethnique en Ituri (ibid.). L’Ouganda est tenu de
réparer tous les déplacements de civils qui ont été causés de manière suffisamment
directe et certaine par un tel comportement (voir les paragraphes
78 et 93 ci-
dessus).
Il s’agit notamment des déplacements pour
lesquels il existe un lien suffisamment direct et certain avec des violations,
par ce dernier, du jus ad bellum, même lorsqu’ils ne s’accompagnaient pas
de violations d’obligations découlant du droit international humanitaire
ou du droit international des droits de l’homme (CREE, Sentence finale,
Réclamations de l’Ethiopie, décision du 17 août 2009, RSA, vol. XXVI,
p. 731, par. 322).
215. La Cour constate qu’une grande majorité des déplacements de
population dont la RDC demande à être indemnisée se sont produits en
Ituri. A cet égard, elle prend note du deuxième rapport spécial du Secrétaire
général sur la MONUC qui indiquait que, « [s]elon le Bureau de la
coordination des affaires humanitaires, entre 500 000 et 600 000 personnes
déplacées » étaient dispersées à travers toute cette région à compter
de mai 2003 (Nations Unies, doc. S/2003/566 du 27 mai 2003, par. 10).
Bien que ce chiffre semble plausible au vu de l’ampleur du conflit et des
conséquences qu’il a eues pour l’Ituri, la Cour rappelle que, dans son
arrêt de 2005, elle a choisi de ne pas tenir compte des éléments tirés de
rapports de l’ONU qui reposaient uniquement sur des informations de
seconde main (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 225, par. 159). De plus, un chiffre
aussi élevé ne saurait être validé sur la seule base d’une estimation tirée
d’un unique rapport. La Cour réaffirme que, dans le contexte de la présente
affaire, elle ne considère les rapports de l’ONU comme des éléments
de preuve fiables que « dans la mesure où ils ont une valeur probante et
sont corroborés, si nécessaire, par d’autres sources crédibles » (ibid.,
p. 239, par. 205).
216. La Cour note que le nombre de personnes déplacées avancé par la
RDC est confirmé par le rapport spécial de la MONUC sur les événements
d’Ituri, où il est indiqué que « [p]lus de 600 000 [Congolais] ont été
forcés à s’enfuir de chez eux » entre janvier 2002 et décembre 2003
(Nations Unies, doc. S/2004/573 du 16 juillet 2004, par. 40). Le rapport
ne fournit toutefois aucune précision au sujet de la source de cette estima-
armed activities (judgment) 85
76
other than by asserting that they are reasonable, why the amounts of
US$300 and US$100 should, respectively, be the measure of damage for
persons displaced as a result of deliberate violence and for other displaced
persons.
* *
214. The Court reiterates that, in its 2005 Judgment, it held Uganda
responsible for indiscriminate and deliberate attacks on the civilian population
and for its failure to protect the civilian population in the course of
fighting against other troops (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211). In
addition, the Court found that Uganda did not comply with its obligations
as an occupying Power and incited ethnic conflict in Ituri (ibid.).
Uganda is under an obligation to make reparation for any displacement
of civilians that was caused in a sufficiently direct and certain way by
these acts (see paragraphs 78 and 93 above). This includes cases of displacement
that have a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus to
Uganda’s violation of the jus ad bellum, even if they were not accompanied
by violations of international humanitarian law or human rights
obligations (EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of
17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 731, para. 322).
215. The Court recognizes that a large majority of cases of displacement
for which the DRC seeks compensation occurred in Ituri. In this
regard, the Court takes note of the Secretary-General’s
Second special
report on MONUC which states that, “[a]ccording to the Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, between 500,000 and 600,000
internally displaced persons” were dispersed throughout Ituri as at May
2003 (UN doc. S/2003/566 of 27 May 2003, para. 10). While this number
appears plausible given the magnitude of the conflict and its impact on
Ituri, the Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it decided not to take
into account elements of United Nations reports which rely only on second‑hand
sources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 225, para. 159). Moreover, the Court
cannot confirm such a large number based on an estimate from a single
report. The Court reiterates that, in the present context, it considers
United Nations reports as reliable evidence only “to the extent that they
are of probative value and are corroborated, if necessary, by other credible
sources” (ibid., p. 239, para. 205).
216. The Court observes that the number of displaced persons claimed
by the DRC finds support in the MONUC special report on the events in
Ituri, which notes that “[m]ore than 600,000 [were] forced to flee from
their homes” between January 2002 and December 2003
(UN doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 40). However, the MONUC
special report does not indicate the source for its estimate. In addition,
86 activités armées (arrêt)
77
tion. En outre, la Cour fait remarquer que la période qu’il couvre s’étend
jusqu’en décembre 2003, dépassant de quelques mois la période de l’occupation
de l’Ituri par l’Ouganda et, partant, celle visée dans l’arrêt de 2005.
Dans un rapport antérieur auquel la Cour s’est également référée dans
son arrêt de 2005 (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 240, par. 209), le rapporteur
spécial sur la situation des droits de l’homme en RDC relève que des tensions
ethniques alimentées par l’Ouganda avaient, à la date d’août 2000,
entraîné le déplacement de 50 000 personnes (Nations Unies, doc. A/55/403
du 20 septembre 2000, par. 26, et doc. E/CN.4/2001/40 du 1er février 2001,
par. 31). Si ce rapport fournit des précisions utiles sur la manière dont la
situation a évolué en Ituri aux premiers stades du conflit, il ne contient en
revanche aucun renseignement sur les années qui ont suivi et ne permet
donc ni de corroborer ni d’infirmer le chiffre avancé par la RDC.
217. L’organisation non gouvernementale Human Rights Watch (ciaprès
« HRW »), dans un rapport établi en juillet 2003 auquel s’est référée
la Cour dans son arrêt de 2005, a elle aussi retenu le chiffre de 500 000 civils
déplacés (HRW, « Ituri : Covered in Blood. Ethnically Targeted Violence
in Northeastern
DR Congo » [Ituri : Le bain de sang. Violence ethnique
ciblée dans le nord‑est de la RD Congo], p. 50). La Cour relève cependant
que, selon le rapport, ce chiffre est tiré d’« estimations du Bureau de la
coordination des affaires humanitaires, janvier 2003 », soit vraisemblablement
la même source que celle sur laquelle est fondé le deuxième rapport
spécial du Secrétaire général sur la MONUC. La Cour ne peut donc
exclure la possibilité que les trois rapports donnant cette estimation de
plus de 500 000 personnes déplacées soient fondés sur une seule et même
source, dont la Cour n’est en mesure d’apprécier ni la méthode ni l’exactitude
ou la valeur probante.
218. La Cour reconnaît toutefois que des éléments supplémentaires ont
été présentés pour étayer des cas précis de déplacements massifs de population
en Ituri. Le rapport spécial de la MONUC sur les événements
d’Ituri décrit en détail les opérations de grande envergure menées contre
des villages lendu par les soldats des UPDF et les milices alliées entre
février et avril 2002 dans le territoire d’Irumu, à la suite desquelles
40 000 civils ont été déplacés (Nations Unies, doc. S/2004/573 du 16 juillet
2004, par. 42). Il constate encore que 2000 personnes ont fui une attaque
lancée en août 2002 par des milices locales hema et gegere à Mabanga,
que les troupes des UPDF n’ont pas tenté d’empêcher (ibid., par. 45).
Toujours selon ce rapport, les affrontements qui se sont produits par la
suite à Bunia, auxquels ont participé les UPDF, et tout particulièrement
les massacres perpétrés par l’Union des patriotes congolais (ci-
après
l’« UPC »), ont entraîné le déplacement de 10 000 familles (ibid., par. 49).
Enfin, le même rapport fait état d’une opération militaire de grande
ampleur nommée « Chikana Namukono », menée par l’UPC entre janvier
et mai 2003 dans la région de Lipri, Bambu et Kobu, qui a contraint
60 000 civils à trouver refuge dans la brousse environnante (ibid., par. 70).
La Cour relève que la description de ces événements ne repose pas sur des
estimations de tierces parties, mais sur les déclarations de témoins ocu-
armed activities (judgment) 86
77
the Court points out that the period covered by the report extends to
December 2003 and thus a few months beyond the temporal scope of
Uganda’s occupation of Ituri and the 2005 Judgment. An earlier report
prepared by the Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the
DRC, to which the Court also referred in its 2005 Judgment (I.C.J.
Reports 2005, p. 240, para. 209), notes that ethnic tensions fuelled by
Uganda had displaced 50,000 persons by August 2000 (UN docs. A/55/403
of 20 September 2000, para. 26, and E/CN.4/2001/40 of 1 February 2001,
para. 31). While this report gives a useful indication of how the situation
in Ituri evolved during the early stages of the conflict, it does not provide
data for subsequent years and can, as such, neither corroborate nor disprove
the figure claimed by the DRC.
217. A report prepared in July 2003 by the non‑governmental organization
Human Rights Watch (hereinafter “HRW”), which the Court
referred to in its 2005 Judgment, also adopts the figure of 500,000 displaced
civilians (HRW, “Ituri: Covered in Blood. Ethnically Targeted
Violence in Northeastern DR Congo”, p. 50). However, the Court notes
that the source used for this figure is cited as “Estimates of the UN Office
for the Co‑ordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), January 2003”
and is thus likely the same as the one relied on by the Secretary-General’s
Second special report on MONUC. Consequently, the Court cannot rule
out the possibility that all three reports indicating a number of more than
500,000 displaced persons were based on the same source, whose methodology,
accuracy and probative value the Court is unable to ascertain.
218. The Court acknowledges, however, that additional evidence has
been presented with regard to specific instances of large‑scale displacement
in Ituri. The MONUC special report on the events in Ituri describes,
in detail, large‑scale operations against Lendu villages by UPDF soldiers
and allied militias from February to April 2002 in the Irumu region,
resulting in 40,000 displaced persons (UN doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July
2004, para. 42). Moreover, the special report recalls how 2,000 individuals
were displaced as a result of UPDF troops failing to stop an attack on
the town of Mabanga by local Hema and Gegere militias in August 2002
(ibid., para. 45). According to the same report, the subsequent fighting in
Bunia, in which the UPDF was involved, and particularly the massacres
conducted by the Union des patriotes congolais (hereinafter the “UPC”),
resulted in the displacement of 10,000 families (ibid., para. 49). Finally,
the special report describes the large‑scale “Chikana Namukono” military
operation that was conducted by the UPC between January and May 2003
in the Lipri, Bambu and Kobu area, and which forced 60,000 civilians to
flee into the surrounding bush (ibid., para. 70). The Court notes that the
description of these events is not based on third‑party estimates but on
eyewitness testimony collected by MONUC human rights investigators.
In addition, the Court observes that the Mapping Report mentions a fur-
87 activités armées (arrêt)
78
laires recueillies par les enquêteurs de la MONUC. Elle note en outre que
le rapport Mapping fait mention d’un autre déplacement de « milliers de
personnes » survenu dans le territoire d’Irumu en septembre 2002, à la
suite de massacres de Hema perpétrés par des troupes de la Force de
résistance patriotique en Ituri (ci‑après la « FRPI ») (rapport Mapping,
par. 413).
219. Des éléments de preuve plus précis attestent aussi les déplacements
de population dans d’autres lieux que l’Ituri, notamment à Kisangani.
Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a rappelé ce qui suit :
« Selon le rapport de la mission d’évaluation interinstitutions qui
s’est rendue à Kisangani (rapport établi en application du paragraphe
14 de la résolution 1304 (2000) du Conseil de sécurité
(doc. S/2000/1153 du 4 décembre 2000, par. 15‑16)), le conflit armé
entre forces ougandaises et rwandaises à Kisangani « [a] gagné les
zones résidentielles, qui ont été pilonnées pendant six jours …
soixante‑cinq mille habitants de la ville ont été contraints à fuir et à
se réfugier dans les forêts avoisinantes. » » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 240, par. 208.)
220. Si la Cour s’est référée à ce passage du rapport de la mission interinstitutions,
c’est pour constater les violations par l’Ouganda de différentes
obligations lui incombant en droit international, et non pour
établir l’étendue précise des dommages que ces violations avaient causés.
A cet égard, nonobstant les observations antérieures qu’elle a faites au
sujet dudit rapport, la Cour ne saurait faire abstraction des éléments nouveaux
qui se sont depuis fait jour. Le rapport Mapping repose sur une
méthode plus rigoureuse (voir le paragraphe 152 ci-
dessus).
En particulier,
ses auteurs n’ont pas retenu le chiffre de 68 000 personnes déplacées
en relation avec la « guerre des six jours » qui a eu lieu en juin 2000 à
Kisangani, constatant plus prudemment que les affrontements avaient
provoqué « le déplacement de milliers de personnes » (rapport Mapping,
par. 363). En l’absence d’éléments de preuve supplémentaires, la Cour ne
peut donc retenir le chiffre, avancé par la RDC, de 68 000 personnes
déplacées à Kisangani.
221. La Cour rappelle que, dans cette ville, les déplacements de population
ont été causés par les combats entre troupes ougandaises et troupes
rwandaises. Ayant examiné les éléments de preuve disponibles, elle
accorde un poids particulier à la conclusion du rapport Mapping indiquant
que des « milliers » de personnes ont été déplacées de Kisangani en
conséquence de ces affrontements. Selon la RDC, l’Ouganda doit réparation
pour l’ensemble des dommages qui se sont produits à Kisangani,
parce que ces dommages avaient des causes cumulatives et des causes
complémentaires. L’Ouganda, en revanche, soutient que les deux Etats
ont commis séparément des faits internationalement illicites et que chacun
n’est responsable que des dommages causés par son propre fait. La
Cour considère que chaque Etat est responsable des dommages qui ont
été causés à Kisangani par ses forces armées agissant indépendamment.
armed activities (judgment) 87
78
ther instance in the Irumu region in September 2002, where the killing of
Hema by troops of the Force de résistance patriotique en Ituri (hereinafter
the “FRPI”) resulted in “several thousand” displaced persons
(Mapping
Report, para. 413).
219. More specific evidence is also available concerning the displacement
of persons in locations outside Ituri, particularly from the city of
Kisangani. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court recognized that
“[a]ccording to the report of the inter‑agency assessment mission to
Kisangani (established pursuant to paragraph 14 of Security Council
resolution 1304 (2000) (doc. S/2000/1153 of 4 December 2000,
paras. 15‑16)), the armed conflict between Ugandan and Rwandan
forces in Kisangani led to ‘fighting spreading into residential areas
and indiscriminate shelling occurring for 6 days . . . 65,000 residents
were forced to flee the fighting and seek refuge in nearby forests’”
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 240, para. 208).
220. The Court referred to this section of the Inter‑Agency Report to
establish that Uganda had breached various obligations under international
law, and not to establish the precise extent of the damage caused
by these violations. In this regard, notwithstanding the Court’s earlier
observations regarding the Inter‑Agency Report, it cannot ignore new
evidence that has since emerged. The Mapping Report adopts a more
rigorous methodology than the Inter‑Agency Report (see paragraph 152
above). In particular, the Mapping Report did not adopt the number of
68,000 displaced persons in relation to the “Six‑Day War” of June 2000
in Kisangani but more cautiously noted that the encounter caused “thousands
of people to be displaced” (Mapping Report, para. 363). In the
absence of further evidence, the Court cannot therefore adopt the number
of 68,000 persons displaced in Kisangani, as claimed by the DRC.
221. The Court recalls that the displacements in Kisangani were the
result of the fighting between Ugandan and Rwandan troops. Having
considered the available evidence, the Court attaches particular weight to
the conclusion in the Mapping Report that “thousands” of persons were
displaced from Kisangani as a result of these confrontations. In the view
of the DRC, Uganda owes reparation for all the damage in Kisangani,
because that damage had both cumulative and complementary causes.
Uganda, on the other hand, maintains that the two States separately
committed internationally wrongful acts and that each is responsible only
for the damage caused by its own action. The Court considers that each
State is responsible for damage in Kisangani that was caused by its own
armed forces acting independently. However, based on the very limited
evidence available to it, the Court can form only a general appreciation of
88 activités armées (arrêt)
79
Toutefois, en se fondant sur les éléments de preuve très limités dont elle
dispose, la Cour ne peut se faire qu’une idée générale du nombre total de
personnes déplacées par le conflit à Kisangani. Dans ces conditions, elle
n’est pas en mesure d’imputer à l’Ouganda une part précise du nombre
total de personnes déplacées. Elle a tenu compte des éléments de preuve
disponibles en ce qui concerne les déplacements de population à Kisangani
pour parvenir à la somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des
atteintes aux personnes (voir le paragraphe 106 ci‑dessus et le paragraphe
226 ci-
dessous).
222. Quant aux déplacements qui se seraient produits dans d’autres
parties de la RDC, la Cour relève que les seuls éléments versés au dossier
par la RDC sont les fiches d’identification de victimes, auxquelles il ne
convient d’accorder qu’une valeur probante très limitée (voir les paragraphes
146‑147 ci‑dessus).
223. En conclusion, la Cour estime que les éléments de preuve présentés
par la RDC ne permettent pas d’établir avec une certitude suffisante
un nombre de personnes déplacées pour lesquelles une indemnisation distincte
pourrait être adjugée. Ces éléments offrent toutefois un éventail de
possibilités fondées sur des estimations solides. La Cour est convaincue
que l’Ouganda doit réparation à raison du nombre important de personnes
déplacées, compte tenu du fait que les déplacements dans la seule
région de l’Ituri semblent avoir concerné 100 000 à 500 000 personnes
(voir les paragraphes 215‑218 ci-
dessus).
*
224. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation du préjudice résultant des déplacements
de population, la Cour ne voit aucune raison de faire une distinction,
comme le propose la RDC, entre les personnes ayant fui leur
domicile pour échapper à des actes de violence délibérés contre les populations
civiles et celles chassées de chez elles par les combats. Il serait plus
pertinent, pour évaluer le dommage causé par les déplacements, de tenir
compte de considérations telles que le laps de temps pendant lequel une
personne a été déplacée et la difficulté des conditions endurées pendant le
déplacement. Il s’agit là de points sur lesquels la RDC n’a pas apporté
d’éléments de preuve. La Cour relève en outre que la RDC ne justifie pas
suffisamment les sommes de 300 et 100 dollars des Etats‑Unis demandées
pour les deux cas de figure qu’elle distingue.
*
225. La Cour rappelle qu’elle peut, dans les circonstances très particulières
de la présente affaire, adjuger une indemnisation sous la forme
d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les éléments
de preuve et compte tenu de considérations d’équité (voir le paragraphe
106 ci‑dessus). Elle relève qu’une échelle de valeurs du nombre
possible de victimes attribuables à l’Ouganda se dégage des éléments dis-
armed activities (judgment) 88
79
the total number of persons displaced by the conflict in Kisangani. Under
these circumstances, the Court is not in a position to apportion to Uganda
a specific share of the total number of displaced persons. It has taken into
account the available evidence on the displacement of persons from
Kisangani in arriving at the global sum awarded for all injuries to persons
(see paragraph 106 above and paragraph 226 below).
222. Regarding displacements that have allegedly occurred in other
parts of the DRC, the Court notes that the only evidence submitted by
the DRC consists of the victim identification forms. These forms can be
accorded only very limited probative value (see paragraphs 146‑147
above).
223. In conclusion, the Court finds that the evidence presented by the
DRC does not establish a sufficiently certain number of displaced persons
for whom compensation could be awarded separately. The evidence does,
however, indicate a range of possibilities resulting from substantiated
estimates. The Court is convinced that Uganda owes reparation in relation
to a significant number of displaced persons, taking into account
that displacements in Ituri alone appear to have been in the range of
100,000 to 500,000 persons (see paragraphs 215-218 above).
*
224. Regarding the valuation of loss resulting from displacement, the
Court sees no basis to draw a distinction between two types of displacement,
as suggested by the DRC, based on whether the victims fled their
homes in order to escape deliberate acts of violence against civilian populations
or were driven from their homes by the fighting. Considerations
more relevant to the valuation of damage caused by displacement would
include the length of time that an individual was displaced and the difficulty
of the circumstances endured during displacement. These are matters
as to which the DRC did not offer evidence. The Court also notes
that the DRC does not sufficiently explain the basis for the figures of
US$300 and US$100 sought for the two types of displacement that it
identifies.
*
225. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances
of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum,
within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into
account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court
notes that the available evidence for the displacement of persons provides
a range of the possible number of victims attributable to Uganda (see
89 activités armées (arrêt)
80
ponibles en ce qui concerne le déplacement de personnes (voir le paragraphe
223 ci‑dessus). Tenant compte de l’ensemble des éléments versés
au dossier (voir les paragraphes 208‑222 ci‑dessus), des méthodes proposées
pour chiffrer le préjudice que représente le déplacement d’une personne
(voir le paragraphe 224 ci‑dessus), et de sa jurisprudence ainsi
que des décisions d’autres organismes internationaux (voir les paragraphes
69‑126 ci-
dessus),
la Cour adjugera une indemnisation pour les
déplacements de population dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée
pour l’ensemble des dommages causés aux personnes (voir le paragraphe
226 ci‑dessous).
6. Conclusion
226. Au vu de l’ensemble des considérations qui précèdent (voir les
paragraphes 133‑225 ci‑dessus, notamment les paragraphes 166, 181, 193,
206 et 225) et dès lors que l’Ouganda n’a pas établi que certains des préjudices
allégués par la RDC en Ituri n’ont pas été causés par son manquement
à ses obligations de puissance occupante, la Cour juge approprié
d’adjuger une somme globale unique de 225 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis
au titre des pertes en vies humaines et autres dommages causés aux personnes.
B. Dommages aux biens
227. La RDC soutient également que l’Ouganda est tenu d’apporter
réparation, par voie d’indemnisation, à raison des dommages causés aux
biens.
228. Dans le dispositif de son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a dit que,
« par le comportement de ses forces armées, qui … [avaie]nt détruit
des villages et des bâtiments civils, [avaie]nt manqué d’établir une
distinction entre cibles civiles et cibles militaires et de protéger la
population civile lors d’affrontements avec d’autres combattants,
… [avaie]nt incité au conflit ethnique et [avaie]nt manqué de
prendre des mesures visant à y mettre un terme, et pour n’avoir pas,
en tant que puissance occupante, pris de mesures visant à respecter et
à faire respecter les droits de l’homme et le droit international
humanitaire
dans le district de l’Ituri, la République de l’Ouganda
a[vait] violé les obligations lui incombant en vertu du droit international
relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire
» (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 280, par. 345, point 3) du dispositif),
et que
« la République de l’Ouganda, en se livrant à des actions militaires à
l’encontre de la République démocratique du Congo sur le territoire de
celle-
ci, en occupant l’Ituri et en soutenant activement, sur les plans
militaire, logistique, économique et financier, des forces irrégulières qui
armed activities (judgment) 89
80
paragraph 223 above). Taking into account all the available evidence (see
paragraphs 208-222 above), possible methodologies to assign a value to
the displacement of a person (see paragraph 224 above), as well as its
jurisprudence and the pronouncements of other international bodies (see
paragraphs 69-126 above), the Court will award compensation for the
displacement of persons as part of a global sum for all damage to persons
(see paragraph 226 below).
6. Conclusion
226. On the basis of all the preceding considerations (see paragraphs
133-225 above, specifically 166, 181, 193, 206 and 225), and given
that Uganda has not established that particular injuries alleged by the
DRC in Ituri were not caused by its failure to meet its obligations as an
occupying Power, the Court finds it appropriate to award a single global
sum of US$225,000,000 for the loss of life and other damage to persons.
B. Damage to Property
227. The DRC also maintains that Uganda must make reparation in
the form of compensation for damage to property.
228. In the operative part of its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that
“the Republic of Uganda, by the conduct of its armed forces,
which . . . destroyed villages and civilian buildings, failed to distinguish
between civilian and military targets and to protect the civilian population
in fighting with other combatants . . . incited ethnic conflict and
failed to take measures to put an end to such conflict; as well as by its
failure, as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect and ensure
respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri
district, violated its obligations under international human rights law
and international humanitarian law” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280,
para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative part);
and
“that the Republic of Uganda, by engaging in military activities
against the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the latter’s territory,
by occupying Ituri and by actively extending military, logistic,
economic and financial support to irregular forces having operated
90 activités armées (arrêt)
81
opéraient sur le territoire congolais, a[vait] violé le principe du non-recours
à la force dans les relations internationales et le principe de
non‑intervention » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 280, par. 345, point 1) du
dispositif).
* *
229. La RDC demande que l’Ouganda lui verse 239 971 970 dollars
des Etats‑Unis à raison des dommages aux biens. Cette demande comporte
plusieurs volets, qui sont analysés en détail ci‑après.
230. Pour ce qui est des dommages causés en Ituri, la RDC réclame
12 956 200 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les destructions d’habitations privées,
21 250 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les destructions d’infrastructures
civiles (notamment les écoles, centres de santé et bâtiments
administratifs) et 7 318 413 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les pillages. La
somme totale réclamée pour ces trois éléments s’élève à 41 524 613 dollars
des Etats‑Unis.
231. La RDC avance que 8693 habitations privées, 200 écoles, 50 centres
de santé et 50 bâtiments administratifs ont été détruits en Ituri.
232. En ce qui concerne les dommages aux biens causés hors Ituri,
la RDC réclame 25 628 075 dollars des Etats‑Unis à raison des atteintes
portées aux habitations privées et aux infrastructures civiles dans les localités
où les UPDF opéraient (Kisangani, Beni, Butembo et Gemena).
Après avoir dans un premier temps revu ce chiffre à la baisse dans ses
réponses aux questions posées par la Cour, elle est en définitive revenue
au montant initial dans ses conclusions finales. Elle demande en outre
97 412 090 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les dommages causés à la Société
nationale d’électricité (ci‑après la « SNEL »), et 69 417 192 dollars des
Etats‑Unis pour des dommages causés à certains biens appartenant à ses
forces armées. La somme totale réclamée par la RDC pour l’ensemble de
ces éléments s’élève à 198 447 357 dollars des Etats‑Unis.
233. Pour détailler ses demandes relatives aux habitations privées et au
pillage, la RDC se fonde sur des tableaux de synthèse qui auraient été
élaborés à partir des données figurant dans les fiches d’identification de
victimes. Les demandes relatives aux dommages causés aux infrastructures
sont fondées sur des rapports de l’ONU, tandis que celles relatives à
la SNEL et aux biens des forces armées congolaises le sont sur des rapports
de synthèse établis par ces entités. La RDC suggère en outre que la
Cour, pour statuer sur sa réclamation relative aux dommages aux biens,
ait recours à « des nombres et coûts approximatifs ».
234. La RDC fixe la valeur d’une habitation privée dite « légère » à
300 dollars des Etats‑Unis, celle d’une habitation dite « intermédiaire » à
5000 dollars des Etats‑Unis et celle d’une habitation dite « de luxe » à
10 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis, précisant que 80 % des habitations détruites
étaient de celles dites « légères ». Elle estime que la valeur unitaire des
établissements scolaires et des centres de santé doit être fixée à 75 000 dollars
des Etats‑Unis, et celle des bâtiments administratifs, à 50 000 dollars
armed activities (judgment) 90
81
on the territory of the DRC, violated the principle of non‑use of force
in international relations and the principle of non‑intervention”
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (1) of the operative
part).
* *
229. The DRC asks that Uganda pay US$239,971,970 for damage to
property. This claim consists of several elements, which are detailed
below.
230. With respect to damage in Ituri, the DRC claims US$12,956,200
for damage to private dwellings, US$21,250,000 for damage to civilian
infrastructure, in particular schools, health facilities and administrative
buildings, and US$7,318,413 for damage due to looting. Together these
elements of the claim amount to US$41,524,613.
231. The DRC alleges that 8,693 private dwellings, 200 schools, 50 health
facilities and 50 administrative buildings were destroyed in Ituri.
232. Regarding damage to property outside Ituri, the DRC claims
US$25,628,075 for damage to private dwellings and civilian infrastructure
in places where the UPDF operated (Kisangani, Beni, Butembo and
Gemena). After initially revising this figure downward in response to
questions asked by the Court, in its final submissions the DRC ultimately
reverted to claiming the original amount. In addition, the DRC claims
US$97,412,090 for damage to its electric company, Société nationale
d’électricité (hereinafter “SNEL”), and US$69,417,192 for damage to certain
property of its armed forces. Together, these elements of the claim
amount, according to the DRC, to US$198,447,357.
233. To particularize its claims concerning private dwellings and looting,
the DRC relies on aggregate tables allegedly prepared on the basis of
data contained in its victim identification forms. The DRC’s claims for
damage to infrastructure are based on United Nations reports, while
those concerning SNEL and the property of the Congolese armed forces
rely on summary reports prepared by these entities. The DRC also proposes
that the Court, in determining its claim regarding damage to property,
use an “approach based on approximate number and cost”.
234. The DRC estimates the value of a “basic” private dwelling at
US$300, dwellings of “medium” quality at US$5,000, and “luxury” dwellings
at US$10,000. It considers that 80 per cent of the private houses
destroyed were “basic”. The DRC submits that the value of each school
and health facility should be set at US$75,000 and the value of each
administrative building at US$50,000. Regarding looting, the DRC bases
both its claim for the extent of the damage suffered and its valuation on
91 activités armées (arrêt)
82
des Etats‑Unis. Pour ce qui est des pillages, elle fonde sa demande, tant
pour ce qui est de l’étendue du dommage subi que de son évaluation, sur
les fiches établies par ses enquêteurs qui sont reprises dans les tableaux de
synthèse susmentionnés.
*
235. L’Ouganda affirme que la RDC ne s’est « pas acquittée de la
charge qui lui incombait d’étayer [ses demandes] au moyen d’éléments
convaincants établissant, avec un degré élevé de certitude, le préjudice
exact qui aurait été subi par suite de faits internationalement illicites spécifiques
[qui lui sont] attribuables …, ou le bien-fondé de l’évaluation
dudit préjudice ». Il souligne que ce niveau de preuve est aussi requis à
l’égard des dommages aux biens causés en Ituri, car même s’il était la
puissance occupante dans cette région, la RDC n’en est pas moins tenue
« d’apporter, ainsi qu’il lui incombe …, la preuve des préjudices spécifiques
causés par d’autres acteurs en Ituri, d’établir les mesures spécifiques
que [lui‑même] a manqué de prendre en tant que puissance
occupante, et de justifier l’existence d’un lien de causalité entre ces
manquements et les préjudices allégués ».
L’Ouganda estime que la RDC n’a pas fourni de documents et de renseignements
suffisant à étayer ses réclamations ou à démontrer un lien de causalité
avec les faits internationalement illicites qu’il a commis. Il avance encore que
des erreurs arithmétiques et des contradictions entament la crédibilité des
chiffres figurant dans les tableaux de synthèse produits par la RDC.
236. L’Ouganda estime que, n’ayant jamais été soulevée au stade du
fond, la demande de la RDC relative aux biens des forces armées congolaises
ne saurait fonder une indemnisation au présent stade des réparations.
Il ajoute que, en tout état de cause, cette demande ne pourrait
prospérer faute de preuves.
237. Répondant au demandeur qui rappelle que la Cour devra tenir
compte des « circonstances et caractéristiques propres » à l’affaire, l’Ouganda
fait observer que, devant la CPI, certaines victimes ont produit des
attestations de résidence, des attestations d’habitation et d’autres documents
de nature analogue. L’Ouganda souligne également que la CREE
« [a] reçu des études d’ingénierie, une évaluation bâtiment par bâtiment
des structures endommagées, des photographies aériennes et au sol, ainsi
que des déclarations sous serment de fonctionnaires des travaux publics
et de résidents », ajoutant que, en l’espèce, la RDC n’a rien produit de tel.
238. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation des habitations en Ituri, l’Ouganda
relève que l’expert désigné par la Cour, M. Senogles, a confirmé
que la RDC « ne justifie ni n’explique » les valeurs qu’elle avance. L’Ouganda
soutient que la RDC aurait été en mesure de produire au moins
quelques pièces justificatives sous forme de factures, reçus ou autres documents
susceptibles de corroborer les coûts allégués. Il exprime des préoccupations
similaires en ce qui concerne la valeur alléguée des bâtiments
armed activities (judgment) 91
82
records of its investigators, as reflected in the above-mentioned
aggregate
tables.
*
235. Uganda submits that the DRC has failed “to sustain its burden of
proving these property claims with convincing evidence that shows, with
a high degree of certainty, the exact injury suffered as a result of specific
internationally wrongful acts of Uganda, or the valuation of the alleged
injury”. Uganda stresses that this standard also pertains to damage to
property in Ituri, where its status as an occupying Power
“does not relieve the DRC of its burden . . . to prove specific harms
inflicted by other actors in Ituri, prove specific measures that Uganda
failed to take as an occupying Power, and prove the causal nexus
between such omissions and the harms”.
Uganda alleges that the DRC has not provided sufficient documentation
or information as evidence to prove its claims or to show a causal nexus
with Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts. It also argues that the credibility
of the numbers in the summary tables submitted by the DRC is
undermined by arithmetic errors and contradictory information.
236. Uganda considers that the DRC’s claim relating to the property
of the Congolese armed forces was not raised at any time during the merits
phase and therefore cannot serve as a basis for an award of damages
in this phase, adding that the claim would, in any case, fail for lack of
proof.
237. Responding to the DRC’s argument that the Court would need to
take the “specific circumstances and characteristics” of the case into
account, Uganda points out that victims at the ICC produced residence
certificates, habitation certificates and other documents of a similar kind.
Uganda also emphasizes that the EECC “was furnished with engineering
studies, building‑by‑building assessment of damaged structures, aerial
and ground‑level photography and affidavits by public works officials and
residents” and that the DRC has not produced similar evidence.
238. Concerning the valuation of dwellings in Ituri, Uganda notes that
the Court-appointed
expert Mr. Senogles confirmed that the values
asserted by the DRC are “not evidenced and not explained”. Uganda
maintains that the DRC would have been in a position to submit at least
some supporting materials in the form of bills, receipts or other documents
that might corroborate the alleged costs. It voices similar concerns
with regard to the alleged value of administrative buildings, as well as
92 activités armées (arrêt)
83
administratifs, ainsi que les dommages causés aux biens hors Ituri. De
plus, il affirme que les « facteurs de minoration pour manque de preuve »
appliqués par M. Senogles (voir le paragraphe 239 ci-
dessous)
ne peuvent
être utilisés pour remédier à ce prétendu manque de preuve. Enfin, il soutient
que les valeurs déclarées pour les biens individuels prétendument
pillés sont trop élevées et ne sont pas fondées sur des informations les
corroborant.
*
239. Aux termes de son mandat, M. Senogles, expert désigné par la
Cour, était appelé à répondre à la question suivante :
« Au vu des éléments de preuve versés au dossier de l’affaire et des
documents publiquement accessibles, en particulier les rapports de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies mentionnés dans l’arrêt de 2005,
quel a été le nombre approximatif et le type de biens endommagés ou
détruits par les forces armées ougandaises pendant la période pertinente
dans le district de l’Ituri et en juin 2000 à Kisangani ? »
M. Senogles a apprécié les éléments factuels à travers le seul prisme des
demandes et allégations formulées dans le mémoire de la RDC, sans
prendre en considération d’autres sources d’information, notamment les
rapports de l’ONU. Pour les habitations privées en Ituri, l’expert a simplement
repris le nombre d’habitations dites « de luxe », « intermédiaires »
et « légères » figurant dans l’un des tableaux de synthèse présentés par la
RDC (26, 199 et 13 384, respectivement), et multiplié ces chiffres par les
valeurs unitaires proposées par la RDC elle-même. Pour d’autres chefs de
dommages, il a appliqué des « facteurs de minoration pour manque de
preuve » à certains éléments de la réclamation afin de tenir compte « de
l’incertitude inhérente à la manière dont [l]e chef de dommages a[vait] été
présenté ». Il a relevé, de manière générale, que le demandeur n’avait pas
fourni « dans chaque cas de détails ou de justificatifs », tout en estimant
qu’il ne semblait « pas étonnant … que la demande d’indemnisation relative
à des milliers d’habitations individuelles [eû]t été présentée sous cette
forme ».
1. Aspects généraux
240. La Cour rappelle que, dans son arrêt de 2005, elle a jugé l’Ouganda
responsable des dommages aux biens causés tant en Ituri que
dans d’autres parties du territoire congolais. Elle a conclu que les troupes
des UPDF avaient « détruit des villages et des bâtiments civils », et
« manqué
d’établir une distinction entre cibles civiles et militaires »
(C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 241, par. 211).
241. Dans le même arrêt, la Cour a également jugé que l’Ouganda
avait « manqué de prendre des mesures … en tant que puissance
occupante
… visant à respecter et à faire respecter les droits de l’homme
armed activities (judgment) 92
83
property damage outside Ituri. Moreover, Uganda asserts that the
“evidentiary
discount factors” applied by Mr. Senogles (see paragraph 239
below) cannot be used to remedy this alleged lack of evidence. Finally,
Uganda submits that values asserted for allegedly looted individual property
are too high and not based on corroborating information.
*
239. The Court‑appointed expert Mr. Senogles was asked under the
terms of reference to respond to the following question:
“Based on the evidence available in the case file and documents
publicly available, particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned
in the 2005 Judgment, what is the approximate number and
type of properties damaged or destroyed by Ugandan armed forces
in the relevant period in the district of Ituri and in June 2000 in Kisangani?”
The expert bases his factual assessments exclusively on the claims and
allegations made in the Memorial of the DRC, without considering additional
sources of information, such as United Nations reports. For private
dwellings in Ituri, the expert simply adopts the number of luxury,
medium-quality
and basic dwellings set out in one of the aggregate tables
presented by the DRC (26, 199 and 13,384 respectively), and multiplies
those figures by the unitary values put forward by the DRC itself. For
other claims, the expert applies “evidentiary discount factors” to certain
aspects of the claim in order “to take account of the inherent uncertainty
in the way [the] claim has been put forward”. As a general matter, the
expert notes “the absence of granular detail or evidence in respect of each
individual property” but also finds it “understandable . . . for the damages
claim in respect of thousands of individual properties to have been
formulated in such a way”.
1. General aspects
240. The Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it found that Uganda
was responsible for damage to property, both inside and outside Ituri.
The Court concluded that UPDF troops “destroyed villages and civilian
buildings” and “failed to distinguish between civilian and military targets”
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211).
241. In the same Judgment, the Court also determined that Uganda
“fail[ed], as an occupying Power, to take measures to respect and ensure
respect for human rights and international humanitarian law in Ituri dis-
93 activités armées (arrêt)
84
et le droit international humanitaire dans le district de l’Ituri » (C.I.J.
Recueil 2005, p. 280, par. 345, point 3) du dispositif). Elle rappelle que,
dans cette phase de la procédure, il incombe à l’Ouganda d’établir que les
dommages à tel ou tel bien en Ituri allégués par la RDC n’ont pas été causés
par son manquement à ses obligations de puissance occupante. En l’absence
d’éléments de preuve à cet égard, il peut être conclu que l’Ouganda
doit réparation pour ces dommages (voir le paragraphe 78 ci‑dessus).
242. La Cour souligne que, compte tenu du caractère très particulier
du conflit et de la difficulté qui en résulte de recueillir des preuves détaillées
pour la plupart des différents types de dommages causés aux biens,
on ne saurait attendre de la RDC qu’elle fournisse des documents spécifiques
pour chaque bâtiment détruit ou gravement endommagé durant les
cinq années de la présence militaire illicite de l’Ouganda sur son territoire
(voir le paragraphe 114 ci-
dessus).
Cela étant, la Cour estime que le
demandeur, nonobstant la situation difficile dans laquelle il se trouvait,
aurait pu, depuis le prononcé de l’arrêt de 2005, recueillir davantage
d’éléments, en particulier s’agissant des biens et infrastructures détenus
par l’Etat congolais lui-
même, qui en avait la propriété et le contrôle. La
Cour gardera ces considérations à l’esprit lorsqu’elle analysera les éléments
de preuve produits par la RDC.
2. Ituri
243. De l’avis de la Cour, la RDC n’apporte pas d’éléments convaincants
pour justifier le chiffre de 8693 habitations privées qui ont selon
elle été détruites en Ituri. Certaines des fiches d’identification de victimes
donnent une idée des différents types de biens perdus par des personnes
privées. Ces fiches ne contiennent cependant aucun renseignement susceptible
de confirmer l’ampleur alléguée des dommages ou encore la nature ou
la valeur des biens touchés (voir les paragraphes 146-147 ci-
dessus).
Par
conséquent, les fiches fournies — et les tableaux de synthèse
qui auraient
été élaborés à partir de telles fiches — ne permettent pas de définir ne
serait-ce qu’un ordre de grandeur possible des dommages. De graves incohérences
fragilisent en outre la réclamation portant sur les dommages causés
aux habitations privées en Ituri. Par exemple, la RDC affirme dans son
mémoire que 80 % des habitations privées détruites étaient des habitations
dites « légères ». Or, selon le tableau de synthèse qu’elle a présenté pour
l’Ituri, ce pourcentage s’élevait à 98 %.
244. L’allégation de la RDC relative à la destruction de 200 écoles en
Ituri repose sur une estimation non étayée du deuxième rapport spécial
du Secrétaire général sur la MONUC, qui n’est pas corroborée par le
rapport Mapping. L’Ouganda a souligné que le demandeur, dans le document
qui recense ses biens perdus, ne mentionne que 18 écoles et 12 jardins
d’enfants.
245. La RDC n’a pas non plus justifié les chiffres qu’elle avance s’agissant
des bâtiments administratifs et des centres de santé qui auraient été
détruits en Ituri, se contentant d’estimer « raisonnable de retenir », sans
armed activities (judgment) 93
84
trict” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subpara. (3) of the operative
part). The Court recalls that, in this phase of the proceedings, it is for
Uganda to establish that the damage to particular property in Ituri
alleged by the DRC was not caused by its failure to meet its obligations
as an occupying Power. In the absence of evidence to that effect, it may
be concluded that Uganda owes reparation in relation to such damage
(see paragraph 78 above).
242. The Court emphasizes that, given the extraordinary character of
the conflict and the ensuing difficulty of gathering detailed evidence for
most forms of property damage, the DRC cannot be expected to provide
specific documentation for each individual building destroyed or seriously
damaged during the five years of Uganda’s unlawful military involvement
in the DRC (see paragraph 114 above). At the same time, the Court considers
that, notwithstanding the difficult situation in which the DRC
found itself, more evidence could be expected to have been collected by
the DRC since the Court delivered its 2005 Judgment, particularly in relation
to assets and infrastructure owned by the DRC itself and of which it
was in possession and control. The Court will bear these considerations in
mind when assessing the evidence tendered by the DRC.
2. Ituri
243. In the Court’s view, the DRC offers no convincing evidence for
the number of 8,693 private dwellings that it claims have been destroyed
in Ituri. Some of the victim identification forms provide a certain impression
of the different types of property lost by individuals. These forms do
not, however, contain information to substantiate the alleged extent of
the damage and the nature and value of the property affected (see paragraphs
146‑147 above). Therefore, the victim identification forms submitted
— and the aggregate tables allegedly prepared on the basis of such
forms — do not contribute to identifying the scale of damage even within
a possible range. There are also substantial inconsistencies with respect to
the claim for damage to private dwellings in Ituri. For instance, in its
Memorial, the DRC states that 80 per cent of the private dwellings
destroyed were “basic” (habitations légères). However, the aggregate
table presented by the DRC for Ituri indicates that 98 per cent of them
were “basic”.
244. The DRC has based its claim that 200 schools were destroyed in
Ituri on an unsubstantiated estimate in the Secretary-General’s
Second
special report on MONUC which is not corroborated by the Mapping
Report. Uganda has pointed out that the document in which the DRC
lists lost properties only refers to 18 schools and 12 kindergartens.
245. Nor does the DRC substantiate the number of 50 administrative
buildings and 50 health facilities that it alleges have been destroyed in
Ituri. The DRC merely considers it “reasonable to assume” that 50 clinics
94 activités armées (arrêt)
85
autre élément de preuve à l’appui, le nombre de 50 dispensaires et hôpitaux
et celui de 50 bâtiments administratifs détruits en conséquence
du manquement par l’Ouganda à ses obligations en tant que puissance
occupante en Ituri. Sa demande relative aux pillages commis dans ce district
est fondée sur des indications générales de rapports internationaux et
sur les fiches d’identification de victimes, qui n’ont qu’une valeur
probante
limitée et ne détaillent souvent pas précisément les biens pillés.
Enfin, la RDC n’étaye pas son estimation relative aux valeurs moyennes
des bâtiments et autres types de biens détruits ou pillés en Ituri.
246. Au vu des éléments de preuve présentés par le demandeur, la
Cour n’est pas en mesure de déterminer, fût-ce approximativement, l’ampleur
des dommages, et le rapport de l’expert qu’elle a désigné ne fournit
pas les données supplémentaires requises à cet égard. Elle doit donc fonder
son évaluation sur les rapports de l’ONU, et notamment le rapport
Mapping, qui contient, selon elle, plusieurs conclusions crédibles relatives
à la destruction d’« habitations », de « bâtiments », de « villages », d’« hôpitaux
» et d’« écoles » en Ituri. A propos de l’Ituri, celui-
ci indique ainsi
que, le 31 août 2002, du personnel de l’UPC qui avait bénéficié de l’appui
logistique des UPDF a incendié « plus d’un millier de maisons » dans la
collectivité de Walendu Bindi, située dans le territoire d’Irumu (rapport
Mapping, par. 413). De même, le 15 octobre 2002, des miliciens de l’UPC
auraient détruit « plus de 500 édifices » à Zumbe dans la collectivité de
Walendu Tatsi (ibid., par. 414) et, le 6 mars 2003, du personnel des
UPDF, du Front national intégrationniste et de la FRPI aurait, au cours
d’une opération militaire conjointe, « détruit de nombreux bâtiments, des
habitations privées et des locaux utilisés par des ONG locales et internationales
» (ibid., par. 421). Sont en outre mentionnés au moins 10 cas dans
lesquels des villages entiers ont été incendiés par les UPDF ou des groupes
armés opérant en Ituri (ibid., par. 366, 370, 414 et 422) et d’autres événements
au cours desquels des centaines de bâtiments ont été détruits par les
flammes ou saccagés lors d’attaques (ibid., par. 409 et 413‑414). La Cour
prend également en considération le fait que le rapport spécial de la
MONUC sur les événements d’Ituri décrit plusieurs épisodes au cours
desquels des villages et des bâtiments entiers ont été réduits en cendres ou
détruits par des groupes armés en Ituri (Nations Unies, doc. S/2004/573
du 16 juillet 2004, par. 47 et 63).
247. La Cour relève en outre que le rapport Mapping et les autres rapports
de l’ONU apportent des preuves convaincantes des pillages commis
à grande échelle en Ituri, tant par les forces armées de l’Ouganda que par
d’autres acteurs (rapport Mapping, par. 366, 369‑370, 405, 407‑408,
413‑414, 416, 419-421 et 428 ; rapport spécial de la MONUC sur les événements
d’Ituri, Nations Unies, doc. S/2004/573 du 16 juillet 2004,
par. 42, 49, 51, 73-74, 100 et 114).
248. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation des biens perdus, la Cour considère
que la RDC n’a pas fourni d’éléments de preuve convaincants à l’appui
des valeurs moyennes alléguées pour les habitations privées, les
bâtiments publics et les biens pillés. M. Senogles, expert désigné par la
armed activities (judgment) 94
85
and hospitals and 50 administrative buildings were destroyed as a consequence
of Uganda’s failure to comply with its obligations as an occupying
Power in Ituri, without providing any further evidence. The DRC’s claim
with respect to looting of property in Ituri is based on general references
in international reports and on victim identification forms whose probative
value is limited and which often do not identify the specific property
that was looted. Finally, the DRC does not substantiate its assessment
regarding the average valuations of the buildings and other forms of
property destroyed or looted in Ituri.
246. The evidence presented by the DRC does not permit the Court to
even approximate the extent of the damage, and the report of the
Court‑appointed expert does not provide any relevant additional information.
The Court must therefore base its own assessment on
United Nations reports, particularly on the Mapping Report. The Court
considers that this report contains several credible findings on the destruction
of “dwellings”, “buildings”, “villages”, “hospitals” and “schools” in
Ituri. For example, it states with respect to Ituri that, on 31 August 2002,
elements of the UPC, which had received logistical support from the
UPDF, set “over 1,000 houses” on fire in Walendu Bindi in the Irumu
region (Mapping Report, para. 413). The Mapping Report also states
that, on 15 October 2002, UPC militiamen destroyed “more than
500 buildings” in Zumbe in the Walendu Tatsi community (ibid., para. 414)
and that, on 6 March 2003, elements of the UPDF, the Front national
intégrationiste and the FRPI, in the course of a joint military operation,
“destroyed numerous buildings, private homes and premises used by local
and international NGOs” (ibid., para. 421). Furthermore, the Mapping
Report identifies at least ten occasions where entire villages were set on
fire by the UPDF or armed groups operating in Ituri (ibid., paras. 366,
370, 414 and 422), and other incidents where hundreds of buildings were
burned or destroyed during attacks (ibid., paras. 409 and 413‑414). The
Court also takes into consideration that the MONUC special report on
the events in Ituri contains various descriptions of entire villages and
buildings that were burned down or otherwise destroyed by armed groups
in Ituri (UN doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, paras. 47 and 63).
247. The Court further notes that the Mapping Report and other
United Nations reports establish a convincing record of large‑scale pillaging
in Ituri, both by Uganda’s armed forces and by other actors (Mapping
Report, paras. 366, 369‑370, 405, 407‑408, 413‑414, 416, 419‑421 and
428; MONUC special report on the events in Ituri, UN doc. S/2004/573
of 16 July 2004, paras. 42, 49, 51, 73‑74, 100 and 114).
248. With regard to the valuation of the property lost, the Court considers
that the DRC has not provided convincing evidence supporting the
alleged average value of private dwellings, public buildings and property
looted. This is acknowledged in the report of the Court-appointed
expert
95 activités armées (arrêt)
86
Cour, en a pris acte dans son rapport, mais il a néanmoins recommandé
à la Cour d’adopter les chiffres proposés par la RDC en ce qui concerne
les habitations privées, compte tenu de leur « caractère raisonnable ». En
ce qui concerne les différents types de dommages aux biens, l’expert a
appliqué sans les expliquer des « facteurs de minoration pour manque de
preuve », soit 25 % pour les bâtiments publics et 50 % pour le pillage en
Ituri. La Cour n’estime pas que l’expert ait suffisamment étayé les « facteurs
de minoration pour manque de preuve » qu’il préconise d’appliquer
et qui varient selon les cas.
249. De l’avis de la Cour, les instances portées devant la CPI qui
concernent le même conflit sont pertinentes aux fins de l’évaluation. Dans
l’affaire Katanga, la chambre de première instance II a évalué le préjudice
lié à la destruction, en février 2003, des habitations du village de Bogoro
(Ituri) à 600 dollars des Etats‑Unis par maison (Le Procureur c. Germain
Katanga, affaire ICC‑01/04‑01/07, chambre de première instance II, ordonnance
de réparation en vertu de l’article 75 du Statut, 24 mars 2017,
par. 195). Quant aux écoles et centres de santé, le fonds au profit des victimes
établi par la CPI a, selon une estimation qui n’a pas été examinée
par la chambre de première instance, chiffré à 50 000 dollars des
Etats‑Unis le coût de reconstruction, à la date de février 2020, d’une école
ou d’un centre de santé en Ituri (Le Procureur c. Bosco Ntaganda,
affaire ICC‑01/04‑02/06, chambre de première instance IV, ordonnance de
réparation, 8 mars 2021, par. 236, (iv) ; Le Procureur c. Bosco Ntaganda,
affaire ICC‑01/04‑02/06, chambre de première instance VI, Trust Fund for
Victims’ observations relevant to reparations, 28 février 2020, par. 130 d)).
3. Hors Ituri
250. Pour ce qui est des dommages causés hors Ituri (voir en général
les paragraphes 82‑84 ci‑dessus), la RDC s’appuie principalement sur des
tableaux de synthèse qui auraient été élaborés à partir des données contenues
dans les fiches d’identification de victimes et sur le rapport de la
mission interinstitutions, qui énumère une série d’affrontements au cours
desquels des habitations privées, écoles et bâtiments administratifs ont été
endommagés à Kisangani en juin 2000. La RDC n’a pas donné, ainsi que
la Cour l’avait invitée à le faire, d’explication satisfaisante de sa méthode
de calcul des dommages qui auraient été causés aux biens à Kisangani,
Beni et Butembo, lieux où il est notoire que les UPDF opéraient. La Cour
relève en outre que la RDC, en incluant dans sa demande tous les dommages
aux biens dont elle estime qu’ils n’auraient pas eu lieu n’eût été le
recours illicite à la force par l’Ouganda, méconnaît le fait que, dans son
arrêt de 2005, la Cour a dit que les groupes armés opérant hors Ituri
n’étaient pas sous le contrôle de l’Ouganda (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 226,
par. 160, p. 230‑231, par. 177, et p. 253, par. 247). Par conséquent, quand
bien même la Cour serait en mesure de déterminer l’étendue des dommages
aux biens causés hors Ituri, les éléments à sa disposition ne suffiraient
pas pour distinguer ceux de ces dommages qui sont le fait de
armed activities (judgment) 95
86
Mr. Senogles. The expert nevertheless recommends that the Court adopt
the figures proposed by the DRC with regard to private dwellings, based
on their “reasonableness”. With regard to different forms of property
damage, the expert applies unexplained “evidentiary discount factor[s]”,
i.e. 25 per cent for public buildings and 50 per cent for looting in Ituri.
The Court does not consider that the expert has sufficiently substantiated
the variable “evidentiary discount factors” he proposes to apply.
249. The Court considers that proceedings before the ICC relating to
the same conflict are relevant for the purposes of valuation. In the Katanga
case, Trial Chamber II assessed the harm connected to the destruction of
each house in the village of Bogoro (Ituri) in February 2003, at US$600
(The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, No. ICC‑01/04-01/07, Trial Chamber
II, Order for Reparations pursuant to Article 75 of the Statute,
24 March 2017, para. 195). As to the valuation of schools and health care
centres, the ICC’s Trust Fund for Victims has provided an estimate, not
addressed by the Trial Chamber, that it would cost US$50,000 to rebuild
a school or health care centre in Ituri as at February 2020 (The Prosecutor
v. Bosco Ntaganda, No. ICC‑01/04‑02/06, Trial Chamber VI, Reparations
Order, 8 March 2021, para. 236 (iv); The Prosecutor v. Bosco
Ntaganda, No. ICC‑01/04‑02/06, Trial Chamber VI, Trust Fund for
Victims’
observations relevant to reparations, 28 February 2020,
para. 130 (d)).
3. Outside Ituri
250. As to damage outside Ituri (see in general paragraphs 82‑84
above), the DRC relies primarily on aggregate tables allegedly prepared
on the basis of victim identification forms and on the Inter‑Agency
Report, which provides a list of incidents that resulted in damage to private
dwellings, schools and administrative buildings in Kisangani during
June 2000. The DRC has not satisfactorily responded to the Court’s
request to explain its methodology for the calculation of property damage
claimed in Kisangani, Beni and Butembo, locations where the UPDF is
known to have operated. The Court also notes that, by extending the
claim to all damage to property that would not have occurred “but for”
the unlawful use of force by Uganda, the DRC disregards the fact that
the Court decided, in its 2005 Judgment, that armed groups operating
outside Ituri were not under the control of Uganda (I.C.J. Reports 2005,
p. 226, para. 160, pp. 230‑231, para. 177 and p. 253, para. 247). Therefore,
even if the Court were able to determine the extent of damage to
property outside Ituri, it has not been provided with sufficient evidence
regarding the question of which property damage was caused by Uganda.
Concerning the operations of the UPDF in Beni and Butembo, the
Mapping
Report confirms several incidents that resulted in substantial
96 activités armées (arrêt)
87
l’Ouganda. En ce qui concerne les opérations des UPDF à Beni et
Butembo, le rapport Mapping confirme plusieurs cas de destructions
matérielles considérables, sans toutefois en préciser l’ampleur (rapport
Mapping, par. 330, 347‑349, 361 et 443).
251. Au vu des éléments de preuve présentés par la RDC, la Cour n’est
pas en mesure de déterminer, fût‑ce approximativement, l’ampleur des
dommages, et le rapport de l’expert qu’elle a désigné ne fournit pas les
données complémentaires requises à cet égard. M. Senogles se contente
d’appliquer des « facteurs de minoration » non expliqués, soit 25 % pour
les demandes de la RDC concernant Beni, Butembo et Gemena, et 40 %
pour sa demande relative à Kisangani.
252. La Cour relève que, s’agissant de Kisangani, le rapport Mapping
fait référence à des affrontements entre forces armées ougandaises et
forces armées rwandaises ayant eu lieu du 5 au 10 juin 2000, au cours
desquels des attaques indiscriminées à l’arme lourde ont détruit « plus de
400 résidences privées et … [causé de graves dommages à] des biens
publics et commerciaux, des lieux de culte …, des établissements consacrés
à l’éducation et des établissements sanitaires, dont des hôpitaux »
(rapport Mapping, par. 363). Il corrobore donc les conclusions du rapport
de la mission interinstitutions (Nations Unies, doc. S/2000/1153 du
4 décembre 2000, par. 15-16 et 57, et tableaux 1 et 2), source que la Cour
a jugée digne de foi dans son arrêt de 2005 (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 240,
par. 208).
253. La Cour estime que le rapport Mapping et le rapport de la mission
interinstitutions contiennent des éléments de preuve suffisants pour
lui permettre de conclure que l’Ouganda a causé d’importantes destructions
à Kisangani. Selon la RDC, l’Ouganda doit réparation pour l’ensemble
des dommages qui se sont produits à Kisangani, au motif que ces
dommages avaient des causes cumulatives et des causes complémentaires.
L’Ouganda, en revanche, soutient que l’Ouganda et le Rwanda ont commis
séparément des faits internationalement illicites et que chacun n’est
responsable que des dommages causés par ses propres actes illicites. La
Cour considère que chaque Etat est responsable des dommages causés à
Kisangani par ses propres forces armées agissant indépendamment. Toutefois,
en se fondant sur les éléments de preuve très limités dont elle dispose,
la Cour n’est pas en mesure d’imputer à l’Ouganda une part précise
des dommages. Elle a tenu compte des éléments de preuve disponibles en
ce qui concerne les dommages causés aux biens à Kisangani pour parvenir
à la somme globale allouée à l’ensemble des dommages aux biens (voir
le paragraphe 258 ci‑dessous).
4. Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL)
254. La réclamation présentée par la RDC à raison des dommages
causés à la SNEL représente une part importante (97 412 090 dollars des
Etats‑Unis) de sa demande globale relative aux dommages aux biens
(239 971 970 dollars des Etats‑Unis). Il est possible, compte tenu de la
armed activities (judgment) 96
87
destruction of property without, however, indicating the extent of such
destruction (Mapping Report, paras. 330, 347-349, 361 and 443).
251. The evidence presented by the DRC does not permit the Court to
assess the extent of the damage even approximately, and the report of the
Court‑appointed expert does not provide any relevant additional information.
Mr. Senogles simply applies unexplained “discount factors” of
25 per cent to the DRC’s claims with respect to Beni, Butembo and
Gemena, and 40 per cent to the claim relating to Kisangani.
252. The Court notes that, with respect to Kisangani, the Mapping
Report refers to the destruction of “over 400 private homes and . . . serious
damage to public and commercial properties, places of worship . . .
educational institutions and healthcare facilities, including hospitals”
during indiscriminate attacks with heavy weapons between the Ugandan
and Rwandan armed forces from 5 to 10 June 2000 (Mapping Report,
para. 363). The Mapping Report thus corroborates the findings of the
Inter‑Agency Report (UN doc. S/2000/1153 of 4 December 2000,
paras. 15‑16 and 57, and tables 1 and 2), which the Court considered to
be a reliable source in its 2005 Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 240,
para. 208).
253. The Court considers that the Mapping Report and the
Inter‑Agency Report contain sufficient evidence to conclude that Uganda
caused extensive property damage in Kisangani. In the view of the DRC,
Uganda owes reparation for all the damage in Kisangani, because that
damage had both cumulative and complementary causes. Uganda, on the
other hand, maintains that the two States, Uganda and Rwanda, separately
committed internationally wrongful acts and that each is responsible
only for the damage caused by its own wrongful actions. The Court
considers that each State is responsible for damage in Kisangani that was
caused by its own armed forces acting independently. However, based on
the very limited evidence available to it, the Court is not in a position to
apportion a specific share of the damage to Uganda. It has taken into
account the available evidence on damage to property in Kisangani in
arriving at the global sum awarded for all damage to property (see paragraph
258 below).
4. Société nationale d’électricité (SNEL)
254. The claim of the DRC for damage caused to SNEL forms a large
part (US$97,412,090) of the overall claim for damage to property
(US$239,971,970). It is possible that, given the character of the conflict
and the scale of the hostilities, the company suffered at least some dam-
97 activités armées (arrêt)
88
nature du conflit et de l’ampleur des hostilités, que l’entreprise ait, dans
une certaine mesure au moins, subi des dommages (rapport de la mission
interinstitutions, par. 57). La RDC fonde toutefois sa demande sur un
rapport succinct et rudimentaire établi par la SNEL elle‑même, en 2016,
peu de temps avant le dépôt du mémoire sur la question des réparations.
A cet égard, la Cour a déjà indiqué qu’elle « traitera[it] avec prudence les
éléments de preuve spécialement établis aux fins de l’affaire » (arrêt de
2005, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 201, par. 61). Les informations contenues
dans le rapport de la SNEL ne permettent ni de justifier l’étendue des
dommages allégués ou l’évaluation qui en est faite, ni de confirmer la
responsabilité de l’Ouganda à leur égard ; elles ne sont pas non plus corroborées
par les autres éléments de preuve versés au dossier de l’affaire.
Le rapport des experts désignés par la Cour n’est guère utile sur ce point,
puisque M. Senogles a fondé sa recommandation sur les montants réclamés
par la RDC et s’est contenté d’appliquer un « facteur de minoration »
non expliqué de 40 %.
255. La Cour relève que la SNEL, en tant qu’entreprise publique assurant
un service public, est soumise à un contrôle particulier des autorités
congolaises. Compte tenu de ce lien étroit avec le gouvernement, et
notamment du fait que ce dernier est probablement en possession de
documents pertinents, l’on aurait pu s’attendre à ce que la RDC produisît
quelques preuves étayant sa demande à la Cour. Dans ces conditions, la
Cour estime que la RDC n’a pas satisfait à la charge de la preuve lui
incombant s’agissant de sa réclamation relative aux dommages subis par
la SNEL.
5. Biens des forces armées
256. Des considérations similaires s’appliquent à la demande présentée
par la RDC pour les dommages causés à certains biens appartenant à ses
forces armées (69 417 192 dollars des Etats‑Unis). Pour étayer cette réclamation,
la RDC se contente de produire un rapport succinct et sommaire, établi
par des responsables congolais peu de temps avant le dépôt de son
mémoire sur la question des réparations, qui ne fournit pas à la Cour une
base solide pour établir la matérialité des dommages allégués ou la responsabilité
de l’Ouganda à leur égard ou pour procéder à leur évaluation. Les
forces armées congolaises relevant de l’autorité directe du gouvernement,
l’on aurait pu s’attendre à ce que la RDC justifiât pleinement ses demandes,
ce qu’elle n’a pas fait. La Cour rejette cette partie de la demande de la RDC
pour défaut de preuve, et n’examinera aucune autre question s’y rapportant.
6. Conclusion
257. La Cour constate que les preuves produites par la RDC en ce qui
concerne les dommages aux biens sont particulièrement limitées. Elle est
toutefois convaincue que des destructions considérables ont été causées
par le comportement illicite de l’Ouganda, ainsi qu’elle l’a jugé dans son
armed activities (judgment) 97
88
age (Inter‑Agency Report, para. 57). However, the brief and rudimentary
report on which the DRC relies was prepared by SNEL in 2016, shortly
before the filing of the Memorial on the question of reparation. In this
connection, the Court recalls that it “will treat with caution evidentiary
materials specially prepared for this case” (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2005, p. 201, para. 61). The report by SNEL does not contain evidence
that would substantiate the extent and valuation of damage claimed, or
the responsibility of Uganda for any damage, nor is it corroborated by
other evidence before the Court. The report of the Court‑appointed
expert is unhelpful in this respect, as his recommendation is based on the
amounts claimed by the DRC and merely applies an unexplained
40 per cent “discount factor”.
255. The Court notes that SNEL is a public entity which, as a national
service provider, is subject to specific supervision by the Government of
the DRC. Given the Government’s close relationship with SNEL, in particular
the fact that it likely has relevant documents in its possession, the
DRC could have been expected to provide some evidence substantiating
its claim to the Court. Under these circumstances, the Court considers
that the DRC has not discharged its burden of proof regarding its claim
for damage to SNEL.
5. Military property
256. Similar considerations apply to the DRC’s claim for damage to
certain property of its armed forces (US$69,417,192). The DRC substantiates
this claim only by way of a brief and rudimentary report that was
prepared by DRC officials shortly before the filing of its Memorial on the
question of reparation. This report does not provide a sufficient basis for
the Court to determine the existence of the damage claimed, the responsibility
of Uganda for such damage or its valuation. Given the direct
authority of the Government over its armed forces, the DRC could
have been expected to substantiate its claims more fully, which it has not
done. The Court dismisses this claim of the DRC for lack of evidence,
and therefore does not address any other question in relation to this
claim.
6. Conclusion
257. The Court finds that the evidence presented by the DRC regarding
damage to property is particularly limited. The Court is nevertheless
persuaded that a significant amount of damage to property was caused by
Uganda’s unlawful conduct, as the Court found in its 2005 Judgment
98 activités armées (arrêt)
89
arrêt de 2005 (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 241, par. 211). Le rapport Mapping
donne, en particulier, des informations dignes de foi et corroborées se
rapportant à de nombreux cas de dommages aux biens causés par l’Ouganda
et, pour ce qui concerne l’Ituri, par d’autres acteurs également
(voir les paragraphes 246, 247, 252 et 253 ci‑dessus). La Cour estime en
outre que l’Ouganda n’a pas établi que les dommages spécifiques aux
biens en Ituri allégués par la RDC n’ont pas été causés par son manquement
à ses obligations de puissance occupante.
*
258. La Cour rappelle qu’elle peut, dans les circonstances très particulières
de la présente affaire, adjuger une indemnisation sous la forme
d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les éléments
de preuve et compte tenu de considérations d’équité (voir le paragraphe
106 ci‑dessus). Elle relève que les éléments de preuve disponibles
en ce qui concerne les dommages aux biens causés par l’Ouganda sont
limités, mais que le rapport Mapping vient corroborer à tout le moins
nombre de ces dommages. Tenant compte de l’ensemble des éléments versés
au dossier (voir les paragraphes 230-253 ci‑dessus), des propositions
relatives à l’évaluation des dommages aux biens (voir les paragraphes 234-
235 et 239 ci‑dessus), et de sa jurisprudence ainsi que des décisions
d’autres organismes internationaux (voir les paragraphes 69‑126
ci-
dessus),
la Cour adjugera une indemnisation pour les dommages aux
biens sous la forme d’une somme globale de 40 000 000 dollars des
Etats‑Unis (voir le paragraphe 106 ci‑dessus).
C. Dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles
259. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a dit que,
« par les actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles
congolaises commis par des membres des forces armées ougandaises
sur le territoire de la République démocratique du Congo, et par son
manquement aux obligations lui incombant, en tant que puissance
occupante dans le district de l’Ituri, d’empêcher les actes de pillage et
d’exploitation des ressources naturelles congolaises, la République de
l’Ouganda a[vait] violé les obligations qui [étaie]nt les siennes, en vertu
du droit international, envers la République démocratique du Congo »
(C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 280‑281, par. 345, point 4) du dispositif).
Elle rappelle que tant la RDC que l’Ouganda sont parties à la Charte
africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples du 27 juin 1981, dont le
paragraphe 2 de l’article 21 dispose que, « [e]n cas de spoliation, le peuple
spolié a droit à la légitime récupération de ses biens ainsi qu’à une indemnisation
adéquate ».
* *
armed activities (judgment) 98
89
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 241, para. 211). The Mapping Report, in particular,
provides reliable and corroborated information about many instances
of damage to property caused by Uganda, and also by other actors in
Ituri (see paragraphs 246, 247, 252 and 253 above). The Court also concludes
that Uganda has not established that the particular damage to
property alleged by the DRC in Ituri was not caused by Uganda’s failure
to meet its obligations as an occupying Power.
*
258. The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances
of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global sum,
within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into
account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above). The Court
notes that the available evidence in relation to damage to property caused
by Uganda is limited, but the Mapping Report at least substantiates
many instances of damage to property caused by Uganda. Taking into
account all the available evidence (see paragraphs 230‑253 above), the
proposals regarding the assignment of value to damage to property (see
paragraphs 234‑235 and 239 above), as well as its jurisprudence and the
pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69‑126
above), the Court will award compensation for damage to property as a
global sum of US$40,000,000 (see paragraph 106 above).
C. Damage related to Natural Resources
259. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that
“the Republic of Uganda, by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation
of Congolese natural resources committed by members of the
Ugandan armed forces in the territory of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo and by its failure to comply with its obligations as an
occupying Power in Ituri district to prevent acts of looting, plundering
and exploitation of Congolese natural resources, violated obligations
owed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo under international
law” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 280‑281, para. 345, subpara. (4) of the
operative part).
The Court recalls that both the DRC and Uganda are parties to the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights of 27 June 1981, Article 21,
paragraph 2, of which states that “[i]n case of spoliation the dispossessed
people shall have the right to the lawful recovery of its property as well as
to an adequate compensation”.
* *
99 activités armées (arrêt)
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260. Dans ses conclusions finales présentées à l’audience, la RDC
demande à la Cour de dire et juger que l’Ouganda est tenu de lui verser
1 043 563 809 dollars des Etats‑Unis au titre de l’indemnisation des dommages
causés aux ressources naturelles congolaises par des actes de pillage
et d’exploitation. Sont comprises dans cette somme des demandes relatives
à la perte de minerais, y compris l’or, les diamants, le coltan, l’étain et le
tungstène, à la perte de café et de bois d’oeuvre, aux dommages causés à la
flore par la déforestation et aux dommages causés à la faune.
261. La RDC s’appuie sur l’arrêt de 2005, dans lequel la Cour a conclu
qu’il existait des éléments de preuve convaincants et crédibles permettant
d’établir que l’Ouganda avait manqué aux obligations internationales lui
incombant en exploitant des ressources naturelles, notamment en tant
que puissance occupante. Elle invoque à cet égard le principe de l’autorité
de la chose jugée. Elle fait valoir que, pour démontrer le « préjudice
exact », il n’est pas nécessaire de prouver que le préjudice en question est
lié de manière absolument certaine à un fait internationalement illicite
spécifique. La RDC allègue en outre que s’applique aux ressources naturelles
un critère d’établissement de la preuve moins strict, énoncé par la
Cour dans l’affaire relative à Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua
dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua) (indemnisation, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26‑27, par. 33‑35). Elle estime que ce critère est
approprié compte tenu des circonstances spéciales qui « tiennent à
cinq années de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles sur un
territoire et par des personnes sur lesquels [elle] n’avait aucun contrôle ».
262. Pour étayer l’ampleur du dommage et le montant de sa demande,
la RDC emploie différentes méthodes en fonction du type de ressource
naturelle en question. Elle applique une méthode fondée sur les excédents
s’agissant de ses demandes relatives à l’or, aux diamants et au coltan (voir
le paragraphe 283 ci-
dessous).
Selon cette approche, la différence entre la
production de minerais en Ouganda et les exportations de ces minerais
depuis l’Ouganda entre 1998 et 2003 est utilisée comme indicateur aux
fins de l’évaluation du préjudice que la RDC aurait subi en conséquence
de l’exploitation illégale. En ce qui concerne le bois d’oeuvre, la RDC calcule
le dommage en se fondant sur la valeur commerciale des exportations
et sur les taxes d’une société forestière particulière, DARA-Forest,
de 1998 à 2003. Ses demandes relatives aux dommages causés à la faune
reposent principalement sur une évaluation établie par l’Institut congolais
pour la conservation de la nature (ci-
après l’« ICCN »), organisme public
responsable de la gestion des parcs nationaux. La RDC se réfère également
aux rapports du groupe d’experts de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies sur l’exploitation illégale des ressources naturelles et autres
richesses de la République démocratique du Congo (ci-
après les « rapports
du groupe d’experts de l’ONU »), au rapport de la commission
Porter,
au rapport Mapping et à des rapports d’organisations non
gouvernementales
pour établir l’existence d’un lien de causalité entre le
dommage et les faits internationalement illicites attribuables à l’Ouganda,
et pour démontrer l’ampleur alléguée du dommage.
armed activities (judgment) 99
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260. In its final submissions presented at the oral proceedings, the
DRC asked the Court to adjudge and declare that Uganda is required to
pay US$1,043,563,809 as compensation for damage to Congolese natural
resources caused by acts of looting, plundering and exploitation. This
sum comprises claims for the loss of minerals, including gold, diamonds,
coltan, tin and tungsten, for the loss of coffee and timber, for damage to
flora through deforestation, and damage to fauna.
261. The DRC relies on the 2005 Judgment, in which the Court found
that there was persuasive and credible evidence to establish that Uganda
had violated its international obligations by exploiting natural resources,
notably as an occupying Power. In this regard, the DRC invokes the principle
of res judicata. It argues that, in order to demonstrate the “exact
injury”, it is not necessary to prove that the injury in question is linked to
a specific internationally wrongful act with absolute certainty. It further
argues that a lower evidentiary standard applies to natural resources, as
laid down by the Court in the case concerning Certain Activities Carried
Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) (Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26‑27, paras. 33‑35). The
DRC considers this standard to be adequate in light of the special circumstances
which “stem from five years of looting, plundering and
exploitation of natural resources across a territory and by persons not
under the DRC’s control”.
262. To substantiate the extent and amount of its claim, the DRC uses
different methodologies depending on the type of natural resource in
question. It applies a surplus methodology for its claims regarding gold,
diamonds and coltan (see paragraph 283 below). According to this
approach, the difference between the production of minerals in Uganda
and the export of those minerals from Uganda between 1998 and 2003 is
used as a proxy for assessing the injury allegedly suffered by the DRC as
a result of the illegal exploitation. With respect to timber, the DRC calculates
the damage based on the commercial value of exports and taxes of a
specific timber company, DARA-Forest,
from 1998 to 2003. The DRC’s
claims relating to damage to fauna are mainly based on an assessment
prepared by the Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation (hereinafter
the “ICCN”), the public body in the DRC responsible for managing
national parks. The DRC further refers to the reports of the United Nations
Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and
Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter
“UNPE”), the Porter Commission Report, the Mapping Report
and reports by non‑governmental organizations to establish the causal
nexus between the damage and internationally wrongful acts attributable
to Uganda and to prove the alleged extent of the damage.
100 activités armées (arrêt)
91
263. Pour ce qui est de ses demandes relatives à l’exploitation de café,
d’étain et de tungstène, la RDC retient les chiffres énoncés dans le rapport
de M. Nest, expert désigné par la Cour. Elle exprime toutefois des doutes,
s’agissant de l’approche suivie par cet expert pour déterminer l’ampleur
de l’exploitation, notamment de l’or, des diamants et du coltan, quant à
l’opportunité d’utiliser une « proxy tax » pour calculer le dommage en
question. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation des ressources exploitées, la
RDC juge qu’il était inapproprié que l’expert applique systématiquement
une décote de 35 % (voir le paragraphe 271 ci-
dessous)
sans tenir aucun
compte de la valeur spécifique de chaque ressource. Elle affirme également
que l’expert s’est fondé sur les conditions du marché congolais,
qu’elle qualifie d’« économie de spoliation », engendrées par le manquement
de l’Ouganda à ses obligations internationales, et conclut que la
Cour ne devrait pas retenir ces prix de référence extrêmement bas. Elle
soutient en outre que l’expert a écarté l’exploitation de ressources naturelles
par des civils en Ituri, limitant ainsi indûment la portée de son analyse.
Enfin, la RDC allègue qu’il aurait dû inclure dans celle-
ci les
dommages causés à la faune et à la flore par la déforestation.
*
264. L’Ouganda affirme que la Cour devrait rejeter les demandes d’indemnisation
de la RDC à raison du pillage et de l’exploitation de ses
ressources naturelles. Selon lui, certaines ressources pour lesquelles la
RDC réclame une indemnisation, notamment le bois d’oeuvre et la faune,
n’entrent pas dans le champ de l’arrêt de 2005. L’Ouganda soutient en
outre que, étant donné qu’elles n’ont été soulevées qu’au cours du premier
tour de la procédure orale, les demandes de la RDC relatives à
l’étain, au tungstène et au café vont à l’encontre de la règle non ultra petita.
265. L’Ouganda allègue par ailleurs que les éléments de preuve présentés
par la RDC sont insuffisants, et que celle-
ci n’a pas satisfait à la charge
de la preuve qui lui incombe. En réponse à l’invocation par le demandeur
du critère énoncé en l’affaire relative à Certaines activités menées par le
Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (voir le paragraphe 261 ci-
dessus),
il
soutient que, dans cette espèce, la Cour n’avait pas « réalisé d’approximations
en partant de zéro [étant donné que l]e Costa Rica a[vait] présenté
des éléments de preuve liant un préjudice spécifique à des faits illicites
spécifiques survenus dans une zone géographique spécifique et à un
moment spécifique ». L’Ouganda affirme que la RDC doit fournir « des
éléments de preuve concernant l’emplacement, la propriété et la production
moyenne de chacune des mines et forêts — ainsi que les éventuels
permis ou concessions y afférents — à raison de l’exploitation illicite desquelles
elle demande une indemnisation de [s]a part ».
266. Selon l’Ouganda, les méthodes appliquées par la RDC sont entachées
de défauts considérables. Pour ce qui est de l’affirmation de celle-
ci
voulant que la différence entre la production alléguée de minerais en
Ouganda et les exportations alléguées de ces minerais depuis l’Ouganda
armed activities (judgment) 100
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263. Regarding its claims for exploitation of coffee, tin and tungsten,
the DRC adopts the figures set out in the report by the Court‑appointed
expert Mr. Nest. With respect to the methodology adopted by the expert
to determine the extent of exploitation, notably of gold, diamonds and
coltan, however, the DRC expresses doubts about the “proxy tax rate”
approach adopted by the expert to calculate the damage in question. As
for the valuation of the exploited resources, the DRC considers it inappropriate
for the expert to apply a discount of 35 per cent (see paragraph
271 below) systematically without any regard for the specific value
of each resource. The DRC also contends that the expert relied on the
market conditions in the DRC as a “spoliation economy” caused by
Uganda’s breach of international obligations, and concludes that the
Court should not adopt these very low base prices. In addition, the DRC
maintains that the expert excluded the exploitation of natural resources
by civilians in Ituri and thus inappropriately limited the scope of his analysis.
Finally, the DRC argues that the expert should have included damage
to fauna and flora through deforestation in the scope of his analysis.
*
264. Uganda submits that the Court should reject the DRC’s claims
for compensation for the looting, plundering and exploitation of its natural
resources. Uganda argues that certain kinds of natural resources for
which the DRC claims compensation, notably timber and fauna, fall
outside the scope of the 2005 Judgment. Uganda further maintains that
the DRC’s claims regarding tin, tungsten and coffee are ultra petita,
since the DRC only raised them during the first round of the oral proceedings.
265. Uganda further argues that the evidence that the DRC presents is
insufficient, and that the DRC has not discharged its burden of proof. In
response to the DRC’s reliance on the standard set out in the Certain
Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area case (see paragraph
261 above), Uganda maintains that in that case the Court was not
“approximating from zero [since] Costa Rica presented evidence linking
specific injury to specific wrongful acts occurring in a specific area and at
a specific point in time”. Uganda claims that the DRC must provide “evidence
regarding the locations, ownership, average production, and concessions
or licenses for each mine and forest for which the DRC claims
compensation for illegal exploitation by Uganda”.
266. According to Uganda, the methodologies applied by the DRC
suffer from considerable flaws. With regard to the DRC’s contention that
the difference between the purported production of minerals in Uganda
and export of those minerals from Uganda between 1998 and 2003 can be
101 activités armées (arrêt)
92
entre 1998 et 2003 peut servir d’indicateur aux fins de l’évaluation du préjudice
qu’elle aurait subi en conséquence de l’exploitation illégale de ces
minerais, l’Ouganda allègue que cela contredit de fait la conclusion à
laquelle la Cour est parvenue en 2005, à savoir que rien ne prouvait qu’il
existât une « politique gouvernementale de l’Ouganda visant à l’exploitation
de ressources naturelles de la RDC, [ni] que cet Etat [eû]t entrepris
son intervention militaire dans le dessein d’obtenir un accès aux ressources
congolaises » (arrêt de 2005, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 251, par. 242).
Quant à l’exploitation du bois d’oeuvre, il fait observer que la demande de
la RDC repose entièrement sur une « étude de cas » relative à la société
DARA-Forest,
que la commission Porter a rejetée comme dépourvue de
tout fondement et que le groupe d’experts de l’ONU a lui‑même désavouée.
L’Ouganda allègue donc que les éléments produits par la RDC
n’apportent pas la preuve de l’ampleur exacte des dommages causés aux
différents types de ressources naturelles et qu’ils ne démontrent pas que
de tels dommages lui sont attribuables.
267. En réponse aux conclusions de M. Nest, l’Ouganda affirme que le
mandat confié à cet expert désigné par la Cour ne prévoyait pas que
celui-
ci appréciât l’exploitation d’étain, de tungstène et de café, de sorte
que les conclusions qu’il a tirées à cet égard outrepassaient son mandat.
En ce qui concerne la méthode appliquée pour apprécier les quantités de
ressources exploitées, l’Ouganda soutient que l’expert fait fond sur un
modèle « exportations/production intérieure » présentant des failles
méthodologiques. Au surplus, selon le défendeur, la méthode que l’expert
a suivie contredit ce qu’il présente comme les conclusions expressément
tirées dans l’arrêt de 2005, à savoir que rien ne prouvait qu’il existât une
politique gouvernementale de l’Ouganda visant à l’exploitation de ressources
naturelles de la RDC, ni que cet Etat eût entrepris son intervention
militaire dans le dessein d’obtenir un accès à ces ressources. Quant à
l’évaluation, l’Ouganda allègue qu’il était inapproprié que l’expert détermine
les prix de référence en fonction des prix du marché et que leur
ajustement était fondé sur des facteurs arbitraires.
*
268. M. Nest, expert désigné par la Cour, estime que la valeur totale
des activités d’exploitation menées par le personnel concerné dans ce qu’il
appelle la « zone d’influence ougandaise » s’élève à 58 855 466,40 dollars
des Etats‑Unis (41 332 950,80 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les ressources
extraites en Ituri ; 17 522 515,60 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les ressources
extraites hors Ituri). L’expert emploie l’expression « zone d’influence
ougandaise » pour désigner les zones non tenues par le gouvernement
situées dans la partie septentrionale de la RDC où des membres des
UPDF étaient présents, soit environ un tiers du territoire congolais, en
Ituri et en dehors de l’Ituri.
269. Il ressort du mandat que la Cour a chargé l’expert d’évaluer la
« quantité approximative » et la valeur des « ressources naturelles, telles
armed activities (judgment) 101
92
used as a proxy for assessing the injury allegedly suffered by the DRC as
a result of the illegal exploitation of those minerals, Uganda argues that
this effectively contradicts the Court’s finding in 2005 that there was no
“governmental policy of Uganda directed at the exploitation of natural
resources of the DRC [n]or that Uganda’s military intervention was carried
out in order to obtain access to Congolese resources” (2005 Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 251, para. 242). Regarding the exploitation
of timber, Uganda observes that the DRC’s claim is founded entirely on
a “case study” concerning DARA-Forest,
which the Porter Commission
refuted as wholly unfounded and which the UNPE itself retracted.
Uganda thus argues that the evidence adduced by the DRC fails to prove
the exact extent of damage to the different kinds of natural resources and
does not demonstrate that such damage can be attributed to Uganda.
267. In response to the findings of the Court‑appointed expert
Mr. Nest, Uganda argues that under the terms of reference the expert was
not instructed to assess the exploitation of tin, tungsten and coffee and
that his findings in this regard were therefore beyond the scope of his
mandate. With respect to the methodology applied to assess the quantity
of resources exploited, Uganda contends that the expert relies on an
“exports — domestic production” model that is methodologically flawed.
Furthermore, Uganda maintains that the expert’s methodology contradicts
what it describes as the express findings in the 2005 Judgment that
Uganda had no governmental policy directed at the exploitation of the
DRC’s natural resources and that Uganda’s military intervention in the
DRC was not carried out in order to obtain access to these resources.
Regarding valuation, Uganda argues that the expert’s determination of
the base prices by reference to the market price was inapposite and that
their adjustment was based on arbitrary factors.
*
268. The Court‑appointed expert Mr. Nest estimates that the total
value of exploitation activities by personnel in what he refers to as the
“Ugandan area of influence” amounts to US$58,855,466.40
(US$41,332,950.80 for resources extracted in Ituri; US$17,522,515.60 for
resources extracted outside Ituri). The expert uses the term “Ugandan
area of influence” to describe non‑government-held areas in the northern
part of the DRC where UPDF personnel were present, covering approximately
one-third of the territory of the DRC, both inside and outside
of Ituri.
269. In the terms of reference, the Court asked the expert to evaluate
the “approximate quantity” and value of unlawfully exploited “natural
102 activités armées (arrêt)
93
que l’or, les diamants, le coltan et le bois », exploitées illégalement en Ituri
durant l’occupation de ce district par les forces armées ougandaises et les
« ressources naturelles, telles que l’or, les diamants, le coltan et le bois »
pillées et exploitées par les forces armées ougandaises en RDC, hors Ituri,
« [a]u vu des éléments de preuve versés au dossier de l’affaire et des documents
publiquement accessibles, en particulier les rapports de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies mentionnés dans l’arrêt de 2005 » (voir le
paragraphe 25 ci-
dessus).
270. En ce qui concerne la portée de son rapport, l’expert interprète le
membre de phrase « ressources naturelles, telles que l’or, les diamants, le
coltan et le bois » comme une liste non exhaustive. Sur cette base, il a
aussi examiné l’exploitation d’étain, de tungstène et de café. Pour ce qui
est de la méthode adoptée, il relève dans son rapport que des éléments de
preuve complets aux fins d’une évaluation précise faisaient défaut « dans
quasiment tous les cas ». En conséquence,
« il … a fallu puiser à d’autres sources d’information pour estimer la
répartition des ressources et leurs quantités, notamment en consultant
des cartes des gisements et en obtenant des informations anecdotiques
fournies par des observations sur le terrain [en RDC], ou
encore croiser des données de production provenant de plusieurs
sources ».
En outre, le rapport d’expertise appelle l’attention sur l’effet que l’« instabilité
» a eu sur la disponibilité, la fiabilité et l’homogénéité des données,
sur l’effondrement de la production industrielle provoquée par le conflit
pendant la période comprise entre 1998 et 2003, et sur le fait que les sept
ressources considérées faisaient toutes l’objet d’une production artisanale
importante mais souvent non déclarée et de contrebande.
271. L’expert a procédé en « huit [grandes] étapes ». Il a commencé par
quantifier les ressources produites dans ce qu’il a appelé la zone d’influence
ougandaise en croisant des données relatives à la production
nationale avec des informations sur l’emplacement des ressources (pour
l’or et les diamants). Dans d’autres cas, « [l]orsqu’il n’existait pas de données
nationales sur les ressources ou lorsque ces données semblaient peu
fiables », l’expert a utilisé les « données d’importation et d’exportation des
pays participant au commerce des ressources de la RDC » comme « indicateur
» de la production congolaise (par exemple pour le coltan, le café,
le bois d’oeuvre, l’étain et le tungstène). Il a ensuite estimé la répartition
des ressources pertinentes dans la zone d’influence ougandaise, notamment
en Ituri et hors Ituri, avant de calculer le prix moyen pour chaque
ressource et chaque année du conflit en prenant pour référence les prix
annuels moyens pour la période 1998-2003 et en y appliquant une décote
de 35 % pour refléter les prix approximatifs dans les zones pertinentes, à
l’aide d’informations tirées d’un large éventail de sources, dont des bases
de données, des rapports de l’ONU et d’autres organisations internationales,
et des publications universitaires. Il a alors actualisé ces prix pour
les exprimer en dollars des Etats-Unis de 2020, en leur appliquant un taux
armed activities (judgment) 102
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resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber” within Ituri during
the occupation by Ugandan armed forces of that district and of “natural
resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber” plundered and
exploited by Ugandan armed forces in the DRC, except for Ituri, “[b]ased
on the evidence available in the case file and documents publicly available,
particularly the United Nations Reports mentioned in the 2005 Judgment”
(see paragraph 25 above).
270. Concerning the scope of his report, the expert understands the
formulation “natural resources, such as gold, diamond, coltan and timber”
to be a non‑exhaustive list. On this basis, he also examined the
exploitation of tin, tungsten and coffee. Regarding the methodology
adopted, the expert report notes that complete evidence for the purposes
of a precise valuation was missing “in virtually all cases”. Therefore,
“other sources of information had to be relied on to inform estimates
about resource distribution and quantities, including maps of deposits,
anecdotal descriptions of resource distribution from field observations
in the DRC, or production data had to be combined from
several sources”.
Furthermore, the expert report points to the effect of “tumultuous conditions”
on the availability, reliability, and commensurability of data, to
the interruptive impact of the conflict on industrial production during the
period from 1998 to 2003, and to significant but often unrecorded artisanal
production and smuggling of all seven resources addressed in the
expert report.
271. The expert proceeded in “eight basic steps”. He first assessed the
quantity of resources produced in what he called the Ugandan area of
influence, based on national production data combined with information
about the location of resources (for gold and diamonds). Alternatively,
“[w]here national data for resources were not available or appeared too
unreliable”, the expert used “export and/or import data for countries
trading in the DRC resources” as a “proxy” for DRC production (as for
coltan, coffee, timber, tin and tungsten). He then estimated the distribution
of the pertinent resources within the Ugandan area of influence,
notably between Ituri and non‑Ituri. The expert next calculated the average
price for each resource and for each year of the conflict by taking the
base annual average prices for 1998‑2003 and applying a discount of
35 per cent to reflect the approximate prices in the relevant areas based on
information obtained from a wide range of sources, including databases,
reports by the United Nations and other international organizations, and
academic publications. He then adjusted the resulting price into 2020
United States dollars by “inflating” them by reference to a standard rate.
The expert then obtained the base value of each resource by multiplying
the estimated amount of each resource produced in the Ugandan area of
103 activités armées (arrêt)
94
standard, puis a obtenu la valeur de base de chaque ressource en multipliant
la quantité estimée de chacune de celles produites dans la zone d’influence
ougandaise, en Ituri et hors Ituri, par son prix pendant la période
pertinente. Enfin, s’appuyant sur diverses sources, l’expert a indiqué,
pour chaque ressource, des « proxy taxes », soit des taux estimés reflétant
la valeur extraite par le personnel concerné à travers chaque méthode
d’exploitation (vol, perception de droits et redevances, et prélèvement de
taxes) sous forme de pourcentage de la valeur totale estimée de la production
de chacune des ressources considérées pendant la période pertinente.
L’expert a établi de telles « proxy taxes » spécifiques pour l’Ituri, en tenant
compte de la valeur extraite par « toutes les forces armées quelles qu’elles
soient et leur personnel administratif, y compris les UPDF et les forces
congolaises », et pour le reste de la zone d’influence ougandaise, en ne
tenant compte que des activités menées par les seuls membres des UPDF.
Il a ensuite calculé, pour chaque ressource, la valeur exploitée par le personnel
susvisé en Ituri et hors Ituri en multipliant la valeur de base de
chaque ressource naturelle par les « proxy taxes » précédemment définies.
272. La RDC, dans ses observations écrites sur le rapport de l’expert,
a souligné que M. Nest avait manqué de prendre en compte l’exploitation
illégale des richesses naturelles en Ituri par des civils, laquelle résultait,
selon elle, d’un manquement de l’Ouganda à ses obligations internationales
en tant que puissance occupante. M. Nest a répondu que, pour
l’Ituri, il avait estimé la valeur extraite par le personnel militaire et administratif
uniquement, en excluant la valeur conservée par les civils. Il supposait
en effet que « les civils avaient été volontairement associés à la
production, au commerce et à l’exportation des sept ressources de 1998
à 2003, et que les bénéfices qu’ils avaient conservés, après le vol et le paiement
des taxes, étaient demeurés sous leur contrôle ». L’expert a par la
suite étoffé son rapport initial en donnant une estimation de la valeur
additionnelle extraite par des civils associée à ces ressources en Ituri. Il a
précisé en outre qu’il appartenait à la Cour de trancher la question de
savoir s’il y avait lieu de considérer la portion de valeur conservée par les
civils ainsi recensée comme faisant partie du dommage subi par la RDC.
1. Aspects généraux
273. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a précisé que, « [p]our rendre sa
décision sur la demande de la RDC [relative aux ressources naturelles], point
n’[étai]t besoin pour [elle] de se prononcer sur les faits propres à chacun des
incidents allégués » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 249, par. 237). Elle a ensuite
conclu que
« elle ne dispos[ait] pas d’éléments de preuve crédibles permettant
d’établir qu’[avait] exist[é] une politique gouvernementale de
l’Ouganda
visant à l’exploitation de ressources naturelles de la RDC,
ou que cet Etat [eû]t entrepris son intervention militaire dans le dessein
d’obtenir un accès aux ressources congolaises » (ibid., p. 251,
par. 242).
armed activities (judgment) 103
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influence, Ituri and outside Ituri, by its price during the relevant period.
Finally, on the basis of a variety of sources, the expert indicated, for each
resource, “proxy taxes”, i.e. estimated rates reflecting the value extracted
by personnel through each method of exploitation (theft, payments of
fees and licences, and taxation) as a percentage of the estimated total
value of production for each resource in the relevant period. The expert
set such specific “proxy taxes” for Ituri, where he took into account the
value extracted by “any and all armed forces and any affiliated administrative
personnel, including both UPDF and Congolese”, and for the
remainder of the Ugandan area of influence, where he only took into
account exploitation undertaken by UPDF personnel. He then calculated
the value exploited by the above-referenced
personnel from each resource
in Ituri and outside Ituri by multiplying the base value of each natural
resource by the “proxy taxes” previously estimated.
272. In its observations on the expert’s report, the DRC pointed out
that Mr. Nest had not taken account of the unlawful exploitation of natural
resources in Ituri by civilians which, it alleges, was brought about by
Uganda’s violation of its international obligations as the occupying
Power. In response, Mr. Nest explained that, for Ituri, he had estimated
the value extracted by military and administrative personnel only, excluding
the value retained by civilians. This exclusion was based on his
assumption that “civilians were voluntarily involved in the production,
trade and export of the seven resources from 1998 to 2003, and that profits
retained by them, after theft and taxes, remained in their control”. The
expert then supplemented his original report by estimating the additional
value extracted by civilians from those resources in Ituri. He also indicated
that the question whether the civilian-retained
portion of this value
should be regarded as part of the damage suffered by the DRC is a matter
for the Court to determine.
1. General aspects
273. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court stated that “[i]n reaching its decision
on the DRC’s claim [regarding natural resources], it [was] not necessary
for the Court to make findings of fact with regard to each individual
incident alleged” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 249, para. 237). The Court then
found that
“it d[id] not have at its disposal credible evidence to prove that there
[had been] a governmental policy of Uganda directed at the exploitation
of natural resources of the DRC or that Uganda’s military intervention
[had been] carried out in order to obtain access to Congolese
resources” (ibid., p. 251, para. 242).
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95
Elle a cependant
« estim[é] détenir des preuves abondantes et convaincantes pour
conclure que des officiers et des soldats des UPDF, parmi lesquels les
officiers les plus haut gradés, [avaie]nt participé au pillage et à l’exploitation
des ressources naturelles de la RDC et que les autorités
militaires n’[avaie]nt pris aucune mesure pour mettre un terme à ces
activités » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 251, par. 242).
274. Pour ce qui est des ressources naturelles situées hors Ituri, la Cour
a établi que la responsabilité de l’Ouganda était engagée à raison du pillage
et de l’exploitation de ces ressources « chaque fois que » des membres
des UPDF avaient été impliqués (ibid., p. 252, par. 245), mais pas à raison
d’un quelconque acte de ce type commis par des membres de « groupes
rebelles » qui n’étaient pas sous le contrôle de l’Ouganda (ibid., p. 253,
par. 247). Dans l’arrêt de 2005, elle n’a pas précisé quels actes de pillage
et d’exploitation de ressources naturelles elle jugeait attribuables à
l’Ouganda.
Cette décision devait être prise au stade des réparations, au
cours duquel il incomberait à la RDC d’apporter des éléments de preuve
relativement à l’ampleur des dommages causés aux ressources naturelles
hors Ituri et à leur imputabilité à l’Ouganda.
275. En ce qui concerne les ressources naturelles situées en Ituri, la Cour
a conclu qu’elle disposait de « suffisamment d’éléments de preuve crédibles »
pour établir que l’Ouganda avait manqué aux « obligations lui incombant
en tant que puissance occupante en Ituri, en vertu de l’article 43 du règlement
de La Haye de 1907, quant à l’ensemble des actes de pillage et d’exploitation
des ressources naturelles commis dans le territoire occupé » (ibid.,
par. 250). Cela signifie que l’Ouganda est tenu à réparation à raison de tous
les actes de pillage ou d’exploitation de ressources naturelles en Ituri, même
si les personnes
qui se sont livrées à de tels actes étaient des membres de
groupes armés ou d’autres tierces parties (ibid., par. 248). Il appartient à la
Cour, au stade des réparations, de s’assurer que les éléments de preuve disponibles
démontrent l’existence des dommages allégués à raison des actes
de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles et, dans les circonstances
très particulières de la présente affaire, de mettre en évidence au
moins un éventail de possibilités quant à son ampleur.
276. La Cour rappelle qu’elle ne doit se prononcer que sur le montant
des indemnités dues à raison des préjudices résultant des faits internationalement
illicites qu’elle a constatés dans son arrêt de 2005 (ibid., p. 257,
par. 260), où elle a spécifiquement traité des informations relatives à l’exploitation
de l’or (ibid., p. 249‑250, par. 238, et p. 250‑251, par. 240-242),
de diamants (ibid., p. 250, par. 240, p. 251, par. 242, et p. 253, par. 248)
et de café (ibid., p. 250, par. 240). La Cour n’a pas mentionné le coltan,
l’étain, le tungstène, le bois d’oeuvre ni les dommages causés à la faune ou
à la flore. Il n’en demeure pas moins que le coltan, l’étain, le tungstène et
le bois d’oeuvre font partie des matières premières que l’on entend par
le terme générique de « ressources naturelles ». La Cour est en outre d’avis
que les demandes relatives à la faune entrent dans le champ de l’arrêt de
armed activities (judgment) 104
95
However, it
“consider[ed] that it ha[d] ample credible and persuasive evidence to
conclude that officers and soldiers of the UPDF, including the most
high‑ranking officers, [had been] involved in the looting, plundering
and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources and that the military
authorities [had] not take[n] any measures to put an end to these acts”
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 251, para. 242).
274. With respect to the natural resources located outside Ituri, the
Court established that Uganda bears responsibility for looting, plundering
and exploitation of natural resources “whenever” members of the
UPDF were involved (ibid., p. 252, para. 245), but not for any such acts
committed by members of “rebel groups” that were not under Uganda’s
control (ibid., p. 253, para. 247). The 2005 Judgment did not specify
which acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of natural resources
the Court considered to be attributable to Uganda. That decision was left
to the reparations phase, in which the DRC would have to provide evidence
regarding the extent of damage to natural resources outside Ituri,
as well as its attribution to Uganda.
275. With respect to natural resources located in Ituri, the Court found
“sufficient credible evidence” to establish that Uganda had violated “its
obligations under Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of 1907 as an
occupying Power in Ituri in respect of all acts of looting, plundering and
exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory” (ibid.,
para. 250). This means Uganda is liable to make reparation for all acts of
looting, plundering or exploitation of natural resources in Ituri, even if
the persons who engaged in such acts were members of armed groups or
other third parties (ibid., para. 248). It remains for the Court in the reparations
phase to satisfy itself that the available evidence establishes the
existence of the alleged injury from looting, plundering and exploitation
of natural resources and, in the exceptional circumstances of this case, to
identify at least a range of possibilities regarding its extent.
276. The Court recalls that it is limited to deciding on the amount of
compensation due for the injuries resulting from the internationally
wrongful acts that the Court identified in its 2005 Judgment (ibid.,
p. 257, para. 260), in which it specifically addressed reports regarding the
exploitation of gold (ibid., pp. 249‑250, para. 238 and pp. 250‑251,
paras. 240‑242), diamonds (ibid., p. 250, para. 240, p. 251, para. 242 and
p. 253, para. 248), and coffee (ibid., p. 250, para. 240). The Court did not
mention coltan, tin, tungsten, timber or damage to fauna and flora.
Coltan, tin, tungsten and timber are nonetheless raw materials which are
encompassed by the generic term “natural resources”. Furthermore, the
Court is of the view that claims relating to fauna are covered by the
scope of the 2005 Judgment, in which the “hunting and plundering of
105 activités armées (arrêt)
96
2005, dans lequel il était fait référence à la « chasse et au pillage d’espèces
protégées » dans le cadre des moyens de la RDC concernant les ressources
naturelles (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 246, par. 223). Quant aux dommages
causés à la flore, la Cour considère que, dans la mesure où ils résultent
directement du pillage du bois d’oeuvre par la déforestation, ils entrent
dans le champ de l’arrêt de 2005. Il lui faut néanmoins s’assurer, au présent
stade des réparations,
de la matérialité de l’exploitation alléguée de
ressources qui n’étaient pas expressément mentionnées dans ledit arrêt et
de ce que l’Ouganda
est tenu de réparer les dommages qui s’ensuivent.
277. La Cour estime que, dans l’ensemble, l’approche méthodologique
adoptée dans le rapport d’expertise emporte la conviction. Elle relève que
la méthode retenue par l’expert diffère, à juste titre, en fonction de la ressource
dont il est question et du degré de fiabilité des données sur lesquelles
il fonde ses estimations. L’expert reconnaît également en toute
transparence les limites de son rapport, admettant que
« [v]u l’absence de [certaines] données, il … a fallu puiser à d’autres
sources d’information pour estimer la répartition des ressources et
leurs quantités, notamment en consultant des cartes des gisements et
en obtenant des informations anecdotiques fournies par des observations
sur le terrain, ou encore croiser des données de production provenant
de plusieurs sources ».
Malgré ces limites, la méthode suivie par M. Nest guide la Cour dans ses
conclusions sur l’étendue des dommages à raison desquels l’Ouganda doit
réparation. Compte tenu de la nature de l’exploitation illicite des ressources
naturelles, de la situation de conflit et de l’absence de documentation
dans le secteur pertinent de l’économie, qui est essentiellement
informelle, la Cour est d’avis que la méthode fondée sur des « proxy
taxes » (voir le paragraphe 271 ci‑dessus) suivie par M. Nest est appropriée,
dans les circonstances de la présente affaire, pour ce qui est d’estimer
les pertes avec un degré d’approximation satisfaisant. Elle n’est pas
convaincue par le critère qu’a proposé l’Ouganda, qui impose à la RDC
d’apporter la preuve de la date, du lieu et du dommage relatif à chaque
cas d’exploitation (voir le paragraphe 114 ci‑dessus). Compte tenu de la
pratique d’exploitation généralisée et des difficultés en matière de collecte
d’éléments de preuve en la présente affaire, l’approche que suggère l’Ouganda
ne semble pas appropriée. La Cour estime au contraire que celle
suivie dans le rapport d’expertise, qui repose sur des estimations établies
à partir de données économiques fiables, de publications scientifiques et
du dossier de l’affaire, donne lieu à une appréciation et une évaluation
plus convaincantes des dommages. L’expert a aussi tenu compte d’autres
raisons susceptibles d’expliquer les excédents respectifs de la production
congolaise et des exportations ougandaises. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation,
il applique dans son rapport une décote plausible au prix du marché
international.
278. Ainsi qu’il a été relevé précédemment (voir le paragraphe 272
ci‑dessus), s’agissant des ressources naturelles en Ituri, l’expert n’a pas
armed activities (judgment) 105
96
protected species” was referred to as part of the DRC’s allegations
regarding natural resources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 246, para. 223). To
the extent that damage to flora represents a direct consequence of the
plundering of timber through deforestation, the Court considers that
such damage falls within the scope of the 2005 Judgment. The Court
must nevertheless satisfy itself in the present reparations phase that the
alleged exploitation of resources which were not mentioned explicitly in
the 2005 Judgment actually occurred and that Uganda is liable to make
reparation for the ensuing damage.
277. The Court is of the view that the methodological approach taken
by the expert report is convincing overall. The Court notes that the methodology
adopted by the expert appropriately differs slightly depending on
the resource in question and on the respective degree of reliability of the
data on which he bases his estimates. The expert report is also transparent
about its own limitations, acknowledging that
“[t]he incompleteness of data meant other sources of information had
to be relied on to inform estimates about resource distribution and
quantities, including maps of deposits, anecdotal descriptions of
resource distribution from field observations in the DRC, or production
data had to be combined from several sources”.
Despite these limitations, Mr. Nest’s methodology informs the Court’s
conclusions on the extent of damage for which Uganda owes reparation.
Given the nature of the unlawful exploitation of natural resources, including
the conflict situation and the lack of documentation in the relevant
sector of the economy that is predominantly informal, the Court is of the
view that the “proxy tax” (see paragraph 271 above) methodology used
by Mr. Nest is appropriate, in the circumstances of the present case, to
estimate the loss with a suitable degree of approximation. The Court is
not convinced by the standard suggested by Uganda, according to which
the DRC has to prove the specific time, place, and damage relating to
each incident of exploitation (see paragraph 114 above). Given the pattern
of widespread exploitation and the evidentiary challenges in this
case, the approach suggested by Uganda does not appear appropriate.
Instead, the Court considers that the approach taken in the expert’s
report, which is based on estimates derived from reliable economic data,
scientific publications and the case file, produces a more persuasive assessment
and valuation of the damage. The expert has also taken into account
other explanations for the respective surpluses of Congolese production
and Ugandan exports. As to valuation, the expert report applies a plausible
discount to the international market price.
278. As previously noted (see paragraph 272 above), the expert did not
include the value extracted by civilians from natural resources in Ituri in
106 activités armées (arrêt)
97
inclus la valeur extraite par des civils dans le montant estimatif de l’indemnisation
figurant dans son rapport initial, au motif qu’il supposait
que, pendant la période de l’occupation, les civils avaient été volontairement
associés à la production, au commerce et à l’exportation de ces
ressources
et que les bénéfices qu’ils avaient conservés étaient demeurés
sous leur contrôle (voir le paragraphe 272 ci‑dessus). Dans les conditions
postulées par l’expert, il peut être conclu que la conservation durable,
par un opérateur, de bénéfices qui lui revenaient ne constitue pas un
« acte[] de pillage et d’exploitation » au sujet duquel la Cour a estimé que
l’Ouganda avait manqué aux obligations lui incombant en tant que
puissance
occupante, en vertu de l’article 43 du règlement concernant
les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre annexé à la quatrième convention
de La Haye du 18 octobre 1907 (arrêt de 2005, C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 253, par. 250), et que l’Ouganda ne peut donc être tenu de verser une
réparation à ce titre. L’arrêt de 2005 mentionne toutefois également des
cas où des membres des UPDF ont favorisé le trafic de ressources
naturelles
par le biais d’entités commerciales (ibid., par. 248). Les
éléments
versés au dossier ne permettent pas à la Cour d’apprécier la
mesure dans laquelle la situation postulée par M. Nest prévalait en
Ituri, par contraste avec des situations où d’autres personnes privées
ont privé l’opérateur de bénéfices par des actes de pillage et d’exploitation
des ressources naturelles. Aux fins de la détermination de l’indemnisation
due pour l’ensemble des actes de pillage et d’exploitation
des ressources
naturelles, la Cour met donc l’accent sur les calculs effectués
par M. Nest au moyen de la méthode fondée sur les « proxy taxes ».
279. La Cour relève que le mandat qu’elle a confié à l’expert n’incluait
pas les dommages causés à la faune et les dommages causés à la flore par
la déforestation, et que celui-
ci n’a donc formulé aucune conclusion au
sujet de ces types de dommages aux ressources naturelles (au-
delà du
commerce de bois d’oeuvre).
280. La Cour fait observer que la RDC se réfère, à l’appui de sa
demande concernant les dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles,
aux rapports du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, au rapport de la commission
Porter, au rapport Mapping, à des rapports d’organisations non gouvernementales
et à des rapports établis par des institutions nationales. Dans
son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a dit que, d’une manière générale, elle considérait
que le rapport de la commission Porter et les rapports de l’ONU lui
fournissaient des éléments de preuve convaincants et suffisants pour
déterminer si l’Ouganda s’était livré à des actes de pillage et d’exploitation
des ressources naturelles de la RDC (ibid., p. 201, par. 61, et p. 249,
par. 237). Elle attribue une valeur probante aux conclusions formulées
dans ces rapports, en particulier si elles sont corroborées par le rapport
Mapping et le rapport d’expertise de M. Nest.
281. Compte tenu de ces considérations générales, la Cour tirera ses
conclusions sur la base des éléments de preuve qu’elle juge fiables afin de
déterminer les dommages causés par l’Ouganda aux ressources naturelles
congolaises et l’indemnisation à adjuger.
armed activities (judgment) 106
97
the amount of compensation estimated in his original report, based on his
assumption that, during the period of occupation, civilians were voluntarily
involved in the production, trade and export of those resources and
that profits retained by them remained in their control (see paragraph 272
above). In the circumstances assumed by the expert, it can be concluded
that an operator’s continued retention of its own profits does not amount
to an act of “looting, plundering and exploitation” in respect of which the
Court found that Uganda had failed to comply with its obligations as an
occupying Power under Article 43 of the Regulations Respecting the
Laws and Customs of War on Land annexed to the Fourth Hague Convention
of 18 October 1907 (2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 253,
para. 250) and thus, would not call for any reparation by Uganda. However,
the 2005 Judgment also refers to instances in which UPDF members
facilitated illegal trafficking in natural resources by commercial entities
(ibid., para. 248). The evidence available to the Court does not permit an
appreciation of the extent to which the scenario assumed by Mr. Nest
prevailed in Ituri, as compared to situations in which other private persons
deprived the operator of profits through acts of looting, plundering
or exploitation of natural resources. In considering the compensation
owed with respect to all acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of
natural resources, the Court therefore places emphasis on the calculations
made by Mr. Nest using the “proxy tax” methodology.
279. The Court notes that the terms of reference provided to the expert
by the Court did not include damage to fauna and damage to flora
through deforestation and that the expert therefore made no findings with
respect to those forms of damage to natural resources (beyond commercial
trade in timber).
280. The Court observes that the DRC refers, in support of its claim
for damage related to natural resources, to the UNPE reports, the Porter
Commission Report, the Mapping Report, reports by non‑governmental
organizations and reports prepared by domestic institutions. In its
2005 Judgment, the Court expressed its general view that the Porter Commission
Report and the United Nations reports furnished sufficient and
convincing evidence to determine whether Uganda engaged in acts of
looting, plundering and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources
(ibid., p. 201, para. 61, and p. 249, para. 237). The Court attributes probative
value to the findings of these reports, particularly if they are corroborated
by the Mapping Report and the expert report by Mr. Nest.
281. Taking these general considerations into account, the Court will
draw its conclusions on the basis of the evidence that it finds reliable in
order to determine the damage caused by Uganda to Congolese natural
resources and the compensation to be awarded.
107 activités armées (arrêt)
98
2. Minerais
a) Or
282. Dans son mémoire, la RDC demande 675 541 972 dollars des
Etats‑Unis à raison de l’or perdu. Au terme de la procédure orale, elle a
déclaré que le montant de sa demande y afférente s’élevait « au minimum
à 249 881 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis ».
283. Pour calculer l’ampleur du dommage, la RDC recourt à une
méthode fondée sur l’excédent des exportations pour déterminer la quantité
d’or exploitée. Cette méthode repose sur le postulat que la production
nationale ougandaise était quasi inexistante entre 1998 et 2003, que l’Ouganda
a néanmoins exporté de grandes quantités d’or pendant la période
pertinente et que l’excédent des exportations correspond à la quantité
d’or exploitée par lui en RDC.
284. La RDC fonde ses calculs sur des données du ministère ougandais
de l’énergie et du développement minéral pour les années 1998 à 2000
tirées du rapport du groupe d’experts de l’ONU (Nations Unies,
doc. S/2001/357 du 12 avril 2001, p. 19‑20) et des rapports annuels dudit
ministère pour la période comprise entre 2001 et 2003. Elle affirme que
l’excédent des exportations d’or de l’Ouganda s’élève à 45 143 tonnes
pour la période allant de 1998 à 2003. Répondant au défendeur, selon qui
les seules statistiques exactes étaient celles du bureau ougandais de la statistique,
la RDC a déclaré que l’excédent des exportations s’établirait
encore à 28 923 tonnes même si on le calculait au moyen des chiffres émanant
dudit bureau.
285. La RDC se réfère à divers rapports pour illustrer l’importance du
rôle joué par l’Ouganda dans l’exploitation illicite de l’or en RDC sur le
plan géographique comme sur ceux de la quantité des ressources concernées
et de la diversité des pratiques mises en oeuvre. Pour étayer sa demande,
elle mentionne la présence des UPDF, en tant que puissance occupante,
dans les mines d’or d’Adidi et de Mabanga (district de l’Ituri). La RDC
évoque également la présence de l’Ouganda dans celles de Watsa (district
du Haut-Uélé) et de Bondo (district du Bas-Uélé). Selon le lieu, la RDC
affirme que des soldats des UPDF ont réquisitionné ou exploité de l’or ou
perçu des « taxes » sur l’exploitation de l’or. Elle a conscience que les différents
incidents auxquels elle fait référence ne suffisent pas, en soi, pour chiffrer
le préjudice qu’elle a subi, mais allègue qu’ils établissent l’importance
du rôle joué par l’Ouganda dans le pillage et l’exploitation illégale de l’or.
286. En ce qui concerne l’évaluation, la RDC a déclaré au cours de la
procédure orale qu’elle souscrivait à l’approche de M. Nest consistant à
utiliser les données du Conseil mondial de l’or, et qu’il conviendrait par
conséquent d’appliquer une décote au prix en résultant pour refléter
l’éventuelle part de la chaîne de valeur qui demeurait sur son territoire.
Elle propose d’appliquer une décote de 95 %.
*
armed activities (judgment) 107
98
2. Minerals
(a) Gold
282. In its Memorial the DRC claimed US$675,541,972 for the loss of
gold. At the end of the oral proceedings the DRC stated that its claim for
gold was “at least US$249,881,000”.
283. To calculate the extent of damage, the DRC uses a surplus exports
methodology to ascertain the amount of gold that was exploited. This
methodology is based on the assumption that domestic production by
Uganda was virtually non‑existent between 1998 and 2003, that Uganda
nonetheless exported large amounts of gold during the relevant period,
and that the surplus of exports corresponds to the amount of gold Uganda
exploited in the DRC.
284. The DRC bases its calculations on data for the years 1998 to 2000
from the Ugandan Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, taken
from the first UNPE report (UN doc. S/2001/357 of 12 April 2001,
pp. 19‑20), and from the annual reports of Uganda’s Ministry of Energy
and Mineral Development for the period from 2001 to 2003. The DRC
claims that the surplus of gold exports from Uganda amounts to
45,143 tonnes for the period between 1998 and 2003. Responding to the
contention by Uganda that only statistics from the Ugandan Bureau of
Statistics (hereinafter the “UBOS”) were accurate, the DRC stated that
the export surplus would still amount to 28,923 tonnes even if it were
calculated using the UBOS figures.
285. The DRC refers to various reports to illustrate the extent of
Uganda’s role in the exploitation of gold, in terms of geography, the
quantity of resources involved, and the range of practices employed.
To substantiate its claim, the DRC refers to the presence of Uganda as
an occupying Power in the Adidi and Mabanga gold mines in the Ituri district.
It also refers to the presence of Uganda in the Watsa (Haut‑Uélé
district)
and Bondo gold mines (Bas‑Uélé district). Depending on
the location, the DRC argues that UPDF soldiers requisitioned or exploited
gold, or levied “taxes” on the exploitation of gold. The DRC recognizes
that the various incidents it refers to are not, in themselves, sufficient to
quantify its injury, but argues that they do establish the extent of Uganda’s
role in the looting, plundering and illegal exploitation of gold.
286. With respect to valuation, the DRC stated during the oral
proceedings
that it agrees with the approach taken by Mr. Nest which
consisted in using the World Gold Council’s data, and that the resulting
price should therefore be discounted to reflect the part of the value chain
that remains, if any, in the DRC. The DRC suggests applying a discount
percentage of 95 per cent.
*
108 activités armées (arrêt)
99
287. L’Ouganda soutient que, dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour n’a pas
conclu qu’il se serait rendu responsable de contrebande d’or ni qu’il aurait
tiré un quelconque profit de l’exploitation illégale de ce minerai. Selon lui,
la RDC n’a fourni aucune justification étayant, en droit, sa demande d’indemnisation
au titre de l’exploitation de l’or.
288. L’Ouganda affirme que la méthode suivie par la RDC pour apprécier
l’ampleur du préjudice qu’elle aurait subi contredit la conclusion à
laquelle la Cour est parvenue dans son arrêt de 2005, à savoir que rien ne
prouvait qu’il existât une « politique gouvernementale de l’Ouganda
visant à l’exploitation de ressources naturelles de la RDC, [ni] que cet
Etat [eû]t entrepris son intervention militaire dans le dessein d’obtenir un
accès aux ressources congolaises » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 251, par. 242).
L’Ouganda allègue aussi que la méthode fondée sur les excédents des
exportations adoptée par la RDC est viciée parce que celle-
ci n’établit
aucun lien entre l’exportation de ressources naturelles depuis l’Ouganda
et leur exploitation illégale. Il souligne que la commission Porter n’a formulé
aucune conclusion quant à l’illégalité de ses exportations d’or. Il
allègue par ailleurs que l’approche de la RDC fait abstraction de certains
facteurs statistiques et réglementaires qui expliquent la divergence apparente
entre ses production et exportations alléguées d’or. Selon lui, les
« données économiques » sur lesquelles se fonde la RDC proviennent du
premier rapport du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, qui a été largement critiqué.
Ces données n’indiquent en outre que la quantité d’or faisant l’objet
d’une demande d’autorisation d’exporter à partir de l’Ouganda, et non les
volumes effectivement exportés.
289. L’Ouganda soutient encore que pratiquement aucun des exemples
d’incidents allégués par la RDC n’apporte la preuve de faits spécifiques
d’exploitation de l’or qui lui seraient attribuables. Tout en reconnaissant
que la RDC produit des éléments, tirés pour l’essentiel du rapport de la
commission Porter, qui tendent à établir « des faits spécifiques attribuables
à l’Ouganda à l’origine d’une exploitation illégale de ses ressources
minières », il allègue qu’elle ne démontre pas la matérialité ni
l’étendue du préjudice qu’elle aurait subi à raison de ces faits. Quant à sa
responsabilité en tant que puissance occupante en Ituri, l’Ouganda affirme
que la RDC n’a fourni aucun élément attestant que le préjudice aurait été
empêché s’il avait agi conformément aux obligations juridiques qui lui
incombent. Il a également fait valoir que, même s’il avait pris toutes les
mesures en son pouvoir et s’était acquitté des obligations lui incombant
en tant que puissance occupante, il n’aurait certainement pas pu empêcher
tous les actes d’exploitation commis par des personnes privées en
Ituri.
290. L’Ouganda conteste également la méthode d’évaluation adoptée
pendant la procédure orale par la RDC, selon qui le prix de l’or retenu
aux fins de l’évaluation devrait correspondre à 95 % du prix mondial. Il
souligne que cette décote repose sur des études de terrain qui n’ont rien à
voir avec lui ou les UPDF, puisqu’elles ont trait à des transactions opérées
par des négociants congolais locaux de 2007 à 2011.
armed activities (judgment) 108
99
287. Uganda maintains that the Court, in its 2005 Judgment, made no
finding that Uganda was responsible for gold smuggling or that Uganda
derived any benefit from illegally exploited gold. It is of the view that the
DRC has offered no legal basis for an award of monetary compensation
for the exploitation of gold.
288. Uganda submits that the DRC’s methodology to assess the extent
of the injury the DRC allegedly suffered contradicts the Court’s finding in
its 2005 Judgment that there was no “governmental policy of Uganda
directed at the exploitation of natural resources of the DRC [n]or that
Uganda’s military intervention was carried out in order to obtain access
to Congolese resources” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 251, para. 242). Uganda
also argues that the surplus methodology adopted by the DRC is flawed
because the DRC does not demonstrate any link between the export of
natural resources from Uganda and their illegal exploitation. Uganda
emphasizes that the Porter Commission did not make any finding concerning
the illegal character of gold exports by Uganda. Uganda further
argues that the DRC’s approach disregards statistical and regulatory factors
that explain the apparent gap between Uganda’s purported production
and export of gold. According to Uganda, the “economic data” on
which the DRC relied came from the first UNPE report, which was
widely criticized. Furthermore, these data merely indicate the amount of
gold for which permit‑seekers sought authorization for export from
Uganda, and not what they actually exported.
289. Uganda further maintains that virtually none of the examples of
injury alleged by the DRC contains proof of specific acts of exploitation
of gold attributable to Uganda. While Uganda recognizes that the DRC
provides evidence, primarily from the Porter Commission Report, “of
specific acts attributable to Uganda resulting in unlawful exploitation of
mineral resources”, it argues that the DRC fails to prove the existence
and the extent of injury with respect to these acts. Regarding its responsibility
as an occupying Power in Ituri, Uganda claims that the DRC did
not offer any evidence to prove that the injury would have been averted if
Uganda had acted in compliance with its legal obligations. Uganda also
argues that, even if it had taken all measures in its power and discharged
its obligations as an occupying Power, it could not possibly have prevented
all exploitative acts by private persons in Ituri.
290. Uganda also contests the method of valuation adopted by the
DRC during the oral proceedings according to which the valuation price
of gold should correspond to 95 per cent of the world price. Uganda
points out that this discount is based on field studies that had nothing to
do with Uganda or the UPDF, since they concern transactions of Congolese
local dealers from 2007 to 2011.
109 activités armées (arrêt)
100
291. L’Ouganda allègue que la Cour ne devrait pas se fonder sur le
rapport d’expertise de M. Nest. Selon lui, cet expert a concédé, lorsque
des questions lui ont été posées à l’audience, que la méthode qu’il avait
adoptée ne démontrait pas que l’excédent des exportations ougandaises
provenait d’une exploitation illégale de l’or en RDC qui était attribuable
à l’Ouganda. Le défendeur affirme en outre que M. Nest s’est appuyé sur
des estimations non corroborées et a appliqué des « proxy taxes » reposant
sur des chiffres exagérés et des données inadéquates.
*
292. M. Nest combine deux méthodes pour apprécier la quantité d’or
illégalement exploité. Premièrement, il compare les données relatives à la
production nationale totale de la RDC avec ses exportations (l’« excédent
de production de la RDC »). Dans la mesure où cette production d’or
était supérieure aux exportations formelles dans ce qu’il appelle la zone
d’influence ougandaise, il a supposé que l’excédent en question reflétait la
quantité totale d’or acheminé en contrebande depuis celle‑ci. Deuxièmement,
l’expert compare les données concernant les exportations d’or émanant
du bureau ougandais de la statistique avec les données relatives à la
production de l’Ouganda afin d’estimer les quantités d’or illégalement
exploité dans la zone d’influence ougandaise (l’« excédent des exportations
de l’Ouganda »). Il retient ensuite le chiffre le plus élevé, de l’excédent
de production de la RDC ou de l’excédent des exportations de
l’Ouganda, comme étant la quantité estimée d’or exploité chaque année
dans la zone d’influence ougandaise. Il estime, en se fondant sur huit
documents contenant des dépositions de témoins oculaires et des déclarations
de producteurs d’or, qu’environ 45 % de l’or produit dans ladite
zone provenait d’Ituri, et que les quelque 55 % restants avaient une autre
origine. L’expert a ensuite estimé la valeur exploitée par le personnel
concerné à partir de l’or par référence à des « proxy taxes » (voir le paragraphe
271 ci‑dessus). Selon M. Nest, « [d]ans l’Ituri, toutes les forces
armées ont probablement volé des quantités limitées d’or aux producteurs
et aux négociants » et, « [e]n dehors de l’Ituri, il est probable que certains
membres des UPDF ont commis des vols d’or limités ». En ce qui concerne
les droits et redevances, les « proxy taxes » applicables ont été calculées
par référence aux rapports de l’ONU et à d’autres rapports. Pour ce qui
est des « taxes » perçues sur l’or, l’expert indique que, pour diverses raisons,
hors Ituri « la taxe sur la valeur prélevée par les membres des UPDF
n’a pu avoir qu’un modeste rapport ». M. Nest estime que la valeur de
l’or exploité par le personnel concerné dans la zone d’influence ougandaise
s’élève à 45 892 790,20 dollars des Etats‑Unis (35 359 097,30 dollars
des Etats‑Unis pour l’or exploité en Ituri et 10 533 692,90 dollars des
Etats‑Unis pour l’or exploité hors Ituri).
* *
armed activities (judgment) 109
100
291. Uganda argues that the Court should not rely on the expert report
by Mr. Nest. According to Uganda, Mr. Nest conceded when questions
were put to him at the hearing that the methodology he had adopted did
not prove that the surplus of Ugandan exports had originated in unlawful
exploitation of gold in the DRC that was attributable to Uganda. It further
claims that Mr. Nest relied on uncorroborated estimates and applied
“proxy taxes” based on inflationary figures and inadequate data.
*
292. The Court‑appointed expert Mr. Nest combines two methods to
assess the amount of illegally exploited gold. First, he compares the data
relating to the DRC’s total national production data with DRC exports
(“DRC production surplus”). To the extent that this gold production
exceeded formal exports in what he refers to as the Ugandan area of
influence, he assumed that this surplus reflected the total quantity of gold
smuggled from that area. Secondly, the expert compares the data from
the UBOS regarding gold exports with Ugandan production data as a
basis for estimating the quantities of gold illegally exploited in the Ugandan
area of influence (“Ugandan export surplus”). The expert then takes
the higher figure between the DRC production surplus and the Ugandan
export surplus as the estimated quantity of gold exploited in the Ugandan
area of influence for each year. Based on eight documents that contain
eyewitness reports and statements by gold producers, he estimates that
around 45 per cent of the gold production in the Ugandan area of influence
came from Ituri, and around 55 per cent from outside Ituri. The
expert then estimates the value exploited by relevant personnel from gold
by reference to “proxy taxes” (see paragraph 271 above). According to
Mr. Nest, “[w]ithin Ituri all armed forces are likely to have stolen limited
quantities of gold from producers and traders” and, “[o]utside Ituri, it is
probable [that] some UPDF personnel engaged in limited theft of gold”.
With respect to fees and licences, the applicable “proxy taxes” were calculated
by reference to United Nations reports and other reports. As to
“taxes” levied on gold, he indicates that, for various reasons, outside Ituri
“the funds extracted through a tax on value imposed by UPDF personnel
is estimated to be low”. Mr. Nest estimates the value of gold exploited by
relevant personnel in the Ugandan area of influence at US$45,892,790.20
(US$35,359,097.30 for gold exploitation in Ituri and US$10,533,692.90
for gold exploitation outside Ituri).
* *
110 activités armées (arrêt)
101
293. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour s’est référée aux constatations de
la commission Porter relatives à l’exploitation de l’or lorsqu’elle a établi
que la responsabilité de l’Ouganda était engagée à raison du pillage et de
l’exploitation de ressources naturelles (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 249‑251,
par. 238 et 240‑242). Elle n’a cependant pas imputé à cet Etat d’actes spécifiques
d’exploitation de l’or en dehors de l’Ituri.
294. La Cour n’est pas convaincue par la méthode et les chiffres sur
lesquels la RDC fonde son évaluation de la quantité et de la valeur de l’or
pillé et exploité pour lesquels l’Ouganda doit réparation. En particulier,
cette méthode n’exclut pas la valeur de la production et du négoce d’or
que les entités commerciales continuaient de percevoir pendant la période
d’occupation et de contrôle par l’Ouganda, pas plus qu’elle ne tient
compte de la production informelle d’or en Ouganda.
295. La Cour considère toutefois qu’il existe suffisamment d’éléments
qui attestent que des forces ougandaises ont participé à l’exploitation de
l’or dans toute la RDC (voir, par exemple, rapport de la commission Porter,
p. 19‑20, 64-72, 81-82, 177 et 197 ; voir aussi arrêt de 2005,
C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 249‑250, par. 238, et p. 250‑251, par. 240‑241). Faisant
état de nombreux cas individuels d’exploitation pendant une période
de cinq années, ces éléments établissent l’existence d’une pratique de pillage
et d’exploitation de l’or en RDC qui impliquait des forces ougandaises.
La Cour estime que la méthode et l’évaluation de M. Nest
constituent une base utile lui permettant d’apprécier les dommages imputables
au comportement illicite de l’Ouganda (voir le paragraphe 292
ci-
dessus).
296. S’agissant spécifiquement de l’Ituri, les éléments de preuve soumis
à la Cour établissent l’existence d’une pratique d’exploitation de l’or
(voir, par exemple, rapport de la commission Porter, p. 69 ; rapport Mapping,
par. 753-757 et 761 ; premier rapport du groupe d’experts de l’ONU,
Nations Unies, doc. S/2001/357 du 12 avril 2001, par. 59 ; voir aussi arrêt
de 2005, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 250, par. 240, et p. 253, par. 248) dont
l’expert rend également compte dans son rapport. D’après les conclusions
formulées aux paragraphes 249 et 250 de l’arrêt de 2005, l’Ouganda ne
s’était pas conformé aux obligations qui étaient les siennes en tant que
puissance occupante et est responsable de « l’ensemble des actes » d’exploitation
en Ituri. Comme la Cour l’a déjà noté, il s’ensuit que l’Ouganda
est tenu de réparer tous les actes de pillage et d’exploitation de
ressources naturelles en Ituri, même si les personnes qui se sont livrées à
de tels actes étaient des membres de groupes armés ou d’autres tierces
parties (voir les paragraphes 79, 275 et 278 ci‑dessus).
297. La Cour estime par ailleurs que les éléments de preuve dont elle
dispose font apparaître une pratique d’exploitation de l’or hors Ituri (premier
rapport du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, Nations Unies, doc. S/2001/357
du 12 avril 2001, par. 56-57, comme confirmé par le rapport de la commission
Porter, p. 21‑23 et 64‑72). Pour calculer les « proxy taxes » (voir le
paragraphe 271 ci‑dessus) hors Ituri, M. Nest se sert d’informations relatives
aux emplacements de l’or et des forces ougandaises pour estimer la
armed activities (judgment) 110
101
293. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court referred to the Porter Commission’s
findings on the exploitation of gold when establishing Uganda’s
responsibility for the looting, plundering and exploitation of natural
resources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 249‑251, paras. 238 and 240‑242). Yet
the Court did not attribute specific acts of exploitation of gold outside
Ituri to Uganda.
294. The Court is not convinced by the methodology and the figures
on which the DRC bases its assessment of the amount and value of gold
looted, plundered and exploited for which Uganda owes reparation. In
particular, the DRC’s methodology does not exclude the value of gold
production and trade that commercial entities continued to receive during
the period of Ugandan occupation and control, nor does it take into
account informal gold production in Uganda.
295. However, the Court considers that there is sufficient evidence of
the involvement of Ugandan forces in gold exploitation throughout the
DRC (see e.g. Porter Commission Report, pp. 19‑20, 64‑72, 81‑82, 177,
197; see also 2005 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 249‑250, para. 238,
and pp. 250‑251, paras. 240‑241). Referring to widespread individual incidents
of exploitation over a period of five years, the evidence establishes
a pattern of plundering, looting and exploitation of gold in the DRC
which involved Ugandan forces. The Court considers Mr. Nest’s methodology
and assessment to be a helpful basis for its appreciation of the damage
attributable to Uganda’s unlawful conduct (see paragraph 292 above).
296. Specifically with respect to Ituri, the evidence before the Court
establishes a pattern of exploitation of gold (see e.g. Porter Commission
Report, p. 69; Mapping Report, paras. 753‑757 and 761; First UNPE
report, UN doc. S/2001/357 of 12 April 2001, para. 59; see also 2005 Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 250, para. 240, and p. 253, para. 248) also
reflected by the expert in his report. According to the findings made in
paragraphs 249 and 250 of the 2005 Judgment, Uganda failed to comply
with its obligations as an occupying Power and is responsible for “all
acts” of exploitation in Ituri. As the Court has noted, this implies that
Uganda is liable to make reparation for all acts of looting, plundering or
exploitation of natural resources in Ituri, even if the persons who engaged
in such acts were members of armed groups or other third parties (see
paragraphs 79, 275 and 278 above).
297. The Court further considers that the evidence before it shows a
pattern of exploitation of gold outside Ituri (First UNPE report,
UN doc. S/2001/357 of 12 April 2001, paras. 56-57 as confirmed by the
Porter Commission Report, pp. 21‑23 and 64‑72). In calculating “proxy
taxes” (see paragraph 271 above) outside Ituri, Mr. Nest uses information
regarding the locations of gold and of Ugandan forces to estimate exploitation
by Ugandan troops as opposed to other forces, so that the Court
111 activités armées (arrêt)
102
part de l’exploitation par celles-
ci, par opposition à d’autres forces, de
sorte que point n’est besoin pour la Cour de réduire ce chiffre pour tenir
compte du fait que le comportement d’autres forces hors Ituri n’est pas
attribuable à l’Ouganda.
298. La Cour est d’avis qu’il existe des éléments de preuve suffisants
pour conclure que l’Ouganda est responsable d’une part substantielle du
dommage résultant du pillage et de l’exploitation de l’or à hauteur de
l’évaluation du rapport d’expertise. Sur cette base, la Cour adjugera une
indemnisation pour ce type de dommages dans le cadre d’une somme globale
allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles
(voir le paragraphe 366 ci‑dessous).
b) Diamants
299. La RDC demande 7 055 885 dollars des Etats‑Unis à raison du
pillage et de l’exploitation illégale de diamants.
300. La RDC affirme que l’importance du rôle joué par l’Ouganda
dans l’exploitation et l’exportation illégales de ressources diamantaires
congolaises est établie de divers points de vue : premièrement, par l’occupation
des zones diamantifères de la RDC par l’Ouganda ; deuxièmement,
par l’implication de certains membres de l’armée ougandaise dans la fourniture
de services de sécurité aux sociétés exploitant les diamants et dans
la perception de « taxes » par les groupes rebelles alliés de l’Ouganda ;
troisièmement, par l’implication des plus hautes autorités militaires
ougandaises dans l’exploitation des ressources diamantaires de la RDC ;
et, quatrièmement, par le rôle des transports militaires de l’Ouganda dans
l’exportation de diamants.
301. La RDC soutient que la hausse exponentielle des exportations
ougandaises de diamants constatée à partir de 1998, alors même que l’Ouganda
ne produisait pas ces gemmes, confirme encore le rôle joué par
celui-
ci dans l’exploitation et l’exportation illégales des ressources diamantaires
congolaises, et lui permet d’apprécier l’étendue du préjudice
qu’elle a subi. En se fondant sur des statistiques relatives aux exportations
tirées d’un rapport établi en 2002 par le groupe parlementaire du Parlement
britannique sur la région des Grands Lacs et la prévention du génocide
— statistiques reposant dans une large mesure sur des données du
Conseil supérieur du diamant (devenu l’Antwerp World Diamond
Centre) —, la RDC estime que, au total, le préjudice qu’elle a subi au
cours de la période comprise entre 1998 et 2001 s’élevait à 7 055 885 dollars
des Etats‑Unis, soit la valeur totale des exportations ougandaises de
diamants pendant la période pertinente. Selon elle, il faut encore ajouter
à ce montant les exportations ougandaises de diamants de 2002 et 2003.
Bien qu’elle ait demandé à cet effet des renseignements à l’institution susmentionnée,
la RDC n’a fourni aucun chiffre à la Cour.
*
armed activities (judgment) 111
102
does not need to reduce this figure to take account of the fact that the
conduct of other forces outside Ituri is not attributable to Uganda.
298. The Court is of the view that there is sufficient evidence to conclude
that Uganda is responsible for a substantial amount of damage
resulting from looting, plundering and exploitation of gold within the
range of the assessment of the expert report. On this basis, the Court will
award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for
all damage to natural resources (see paragraph 366 below).
(b) Diamonds
299. The DRC claims US$7,055,885 for the looting, plundering and
illegal exploitation of diamonds.
300. The DRC argues that the extent of Uganda’s role in the illegal
exploitation and exportation of the DRC’s diamond resources is clear
from various perspectives: first, from Uganda’s occupation of the DRC’s
diamond mining areas; secondly, from the involvement of certain members
of the Ugandan army in the provision of security services to companies
exploiting diamonds and the collection of “taxes” by rebel groups
allied to Uganda; thirdly, from the involvement of the most senior Ugandan
military officials in the exploitation of the DRC’s diamond reserves;
and fourthly, from the role that Ugandan military transport played in the
exporting of diamonds.
301. The DRC submits that the exponential increase that was seen in
Ugandan diamond exports from 1998, despite Uganda not producing
diamonds, provides further confirmation of Uganda’s role in the illegal
exploitation and exportation of the DRC’s diamond resources, and
enables it to assess the extent of the injury suffered. On the basis of export
statistics stemming from a 2002 report by the British All‑Party Parliamentary
Group on the Great Lakes and Genocide Prevention, based
largely on data from the Diamond High Council (now the Antwerp
World Diamond Centre), the DRC estimates that the injury it suffered in
the period from 1998 to 2001 amounted to US$7,055,885, i.e. the total
value of Ugandan diamond exports during the period in question. The
DRC adds that that amount needs to be supplemented by Ugandan diamond
exports in 2002 and 2003. Although the DRC made enquiries to
the Diamond High Council to that effect, it has not provided a figure to
the Court.
*
112 activités armées (arrêt)
103
302. L’Ouganda soutient que l’affirmation de la RDC voulant qu’il ait
illégalement exploité des diamants congolais pour une valeur de
7 055 885 dollars des Etats-Unis est dépourvue de fondement. Selon lui,
la RDC n’a donc fourni aucune justification étayant, en droit, sa demande
d’indemnisation à ce titre.
303. L’Ouganda fait observer que la méthode employée par la RDC
pour apprécier l’ampleur du dommage sur la base des prétendues exportations
ougandaises de minerais contredit de fait la conclusion à laquelle
la Cour est parvenue en 2005, à savoir que rien ne prouvait qu’il existât
une « politique gouvernementale de l’Ouganda visant à l’exploitation de
ressources naturelles de la RDC, [ni] que cet Etat [eû]t entrepris son intervention
militaire dans le dessein d’obtenir un accès aux ressources congolaises
» (arrêt de 2005, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 251, par. 242). L’Ouganda
souligne aussi que la RDC fonde entièrement sa demande sur le premier
rapport, largement critiqué, du groupe d’experts de l’ONU.
304. L’Ouganda conteste l’évaluation faite par la RDC du préjudice
qu’elle a subi et relève que les statistiques relatives aux exportations
qu’elle a fournies émanent d’une source unique, le Conseil supérieur du
diamant, et ne sont pas corroborées. Il souligne que ni la formation parlementaire
britannique regroupant l’ensemble des partis politiques ni le
groupe d’experts de l’ONU n’ont vérifié de manière indépendante les données
en question avant de les invoquer. Il se réfère à la commission Porter,
qui a conclu que le premier rapport du groupe d’experts de l’ONU
fondé sur ces statistiques n’était pas fiable car les données reflétaient non
pas les exportations licites de diamants de l’Ouganda mais l’origine déclarée
des importations après leur arrivée en Belgique. L’Ouganda a soumis
ses propres données statistiques, émanant du bureau ougandais de la statistique,
qui indiquent qu’il n’a exporté que d’infimes quantités de diamants
entre 1998 et 2003 (d’une valeur totale approximative de
4393 dollars des Etats‑Unis).
*
305. Dans son rapport d’expertise, M. Nest applique aux diamants une
méthode comparable à celle qu’il emploie pour l’or. Il précise cependant
que l’ensemble des données sur lequel il s’appuie pour arriver à ces estimations
est moins complet que celui relatif à l’or. Afin de pallier cela,
M. Nest extrapole à certains égards à partir des données concernant l’or.
Sur la base de ses conclusions, M. Nest estime à 6 039 299 dollars des
Etats‑Unis, dont 1 013 897 dollars des Etats-Unis en Ituri et 5 025 402 dollars
des Etats-Unis hors Ituri, la valeur extraite de l’exploitation de diamants
par le personnel concerné.
* *
306. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour s’est référée aux conclusions de la
commission Porter en matière d’exploitation de diamants lorsqu’elle a
armed activities (judgment) 112
103
302. Uganda maintains that the DRC’s claim that Uganda illegally
exploited Congolese diamonds in the amount of US$7,055,885 lacks
foundation. Accordingly, in Uganda’s view, the DRC has offered no legal
basis upon which compensation can be awarded for this claim.
303. Uganda observes that the methodology used by the DRC to
assess the extent of damage based on Uganda’s purported export of minerals
effectively contradicts the Court’s finding in 2005 that there was no
“governmental policy of Uganda directed at the exploitation of natural
resources of the DRC [n]or that Uganda’s military intervention was carried
out in order to obtain access to Congolese resources” (2005 Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 251, para. 242). Uganda further highlights
that the DRC bases its claim entirely on the widely criticized first report
of the UNPE.
304. Uganda contests the DRC’s valuation of its injury, noting that
the export statistics provided by the DRC emanate from a single source,
the Diamond High Council, and are uncorroborated. Uganda emphasizes
that neither the British All-Party Parliamentary Group nor the UNPE
independently verified the data from the Diamond High Council before
relying on them. Uganda refers to the Porter Commission, which concluded
that the first UNPE report based on these statistics was unreliable
since the data did not reflect the legal export of diamonds from Uganda
but rather the declared origin of imports after arriving in Belgium.
Uganda has submitted its own statistical data from the UBOS which indicate
that Uganda exported only miniscule quantities of diamonds
between 1998 and 2003 (worth approximately US$4,393 in total).
*
305. In his report, the Court‑appointed expert Mr. Nest applies to diamonds
a methodology comparable to the one he uses for gold. He states,
however, that the dataset on which he relies makes the resulting estimates
less complete than those for gold. To compensate for this, Mr. Nest
extrapolates in certain respects from the data on gold. On the basis of his
findings, Mr. Nest estimates that the value extracted by relevant personnel
through the exploitation of diamonds is US$6,039,299, of which
US$1,013,897 is in Ituri and US$5,025,402 outside Ituri.
* *
306. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court referred to the Porter Commission’s
findings on the exploitation of diamonds when establishing Ugan-
113 activités armées (arrêt)
104
établi la responsabilité de l’Ouganda en ce qui concerne le pillage et l’exploitation
de ressources naturelles (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 250‑251,
par. 240 et 242, et p. 253, par. 248). Il y a lieu de noter que, s’agissant de
l’Ituri, elle a jugé qu’« [i]l ressort[ait] clairement de différentes conclusions
de la commission Porter que plutôt que de prévenir le trafic illicite de
ressources naturelles, et notamment de diamants, des officiers supérieurs
des UPDF [avaie]nt au contraire favorisé de telles activités par le biais
d’entités commerciales » (ibid., p. 253, par. 248). La Cour n’a cependant
pas constaté d’actes spécifiques concernant l’exploitation de diamants
dont l’Ouganda est responsable, et elle n’a pas non plus précisé la quantité
ou la valeur des diamants exploités.
307. La Cour considère que les chiffres avancés par la RDC en ce qui
concerne la quantité et la valeur des diamants exploités à raison desquels
l’Ouganda doit réparation ne reposent pas sur une approche méthodologique
convaincante, notamment parce que la RDC se fonde sur des données
insuffisantes et non corroborées.
308. La Cour estime toutefois qu’il existe suffisamment d’éléments de
preuve attestant l’implication des forces ougandaises dans une pratique
de pillage et d’exploitation de diamants dans toute la RDC. Elle relève
que le rapport de la commission Porter décrit plusieurs cas d’exploitation
de diamants attribuables à l’Ouganda (rapport de la commission Porter,
p. 51, 82, 88-89, 117, 121‑123 et 162). En outre, certains rapports de
l’ONU publiés après celui de la commission Porter ont étayé l’existence
de pratiques d’exploitation de diamants en Ituri (voir, par exemple, rapport
spécial de la MONUC sur les événements d’Ituri, Nations Unies,
doc. S/2004/573 du 16 juillet 2004, par. 133 ; rapport Mapping, par. 768)
et hors Ituri (voir, par exemple, rapport Mapping, par. 748).
309. Dans ces conditions, la Cour estime que la méthode de M. Nest,
qui correspond en substance à celle qu’il a adoptée pour l’or, et son évaluation
constituent une référence convaincante pour déterminer l’ampleur
et la valeur des dommages à raison desquels l’Ouganda doit réparation.
310. La Cour considère qu’il existe des éléments de preuve suffisants lui
permettant de conclure que l’Ouganda est responsable du dommage
résultant du pillage et de l’exploitation de diamants à hauteur de l’évaluation
du rapport d’expertise. Sur cette base, la Cour adjugera une indemnisation
pour ce type de dommages dans le cadre d’une somme globale
allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles
(voir le paragraphe 366 ci‑dessous).
c) Coltan
311. La RDC réclame 2 915 880 dollars des Etats‑Unis à raison du
dommage résultant du pillage et de l’exploitation illégale du coltan et de
niobium, l’un des minerais extraits du coltan.
312. La RDC se réfère à divers rapports qui indiquent que l’Ouganda
contrôlait des mines de coltan à Bafwasende et à Mambasa afin d’étayer
son allégation selon laquelle le coltan était l’une des ressources naturelles
armed activities (judgment) 113
104
da’s liability for the looting, plundering and exploitation of natural
resources (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 250‑251, paras. 240 and 242, and
p. 253, para. 248). Notably, the Court found with respect to Ituri that
“[i]t is apparent from various findings of the Porter Commission that
rather than preventing the illegal traffic in natural resources, including
diamonds, high‑ranking members of the UPDF facilitated such activities
by commercial entities” (ibid., p. 253, para. 248). However, the Court did
not identify specific acts regarding the exploitation of diamonds for which
Uganda is responsible, nor did it specify the quantity or value of the
exploited diamonds.
307. The Court considers that the figures put forward by the DRC
with respect to the quantity and value of exploited diamonds for which
Uganda owes reparation are not based on a convincing methodological
approach, in particular because the DRC relies on insufficient and uncorroborated
data.
308. However, the Court is of the view that there is sufficient evidence
of involvement by Ugandan forces in a pattern of plundering, looting and
exploitation of diamonds throughout the DRC. The Court notes that the
Porter Commission Report contains descriptions of multiple incidents
involving the exploitation of diamonds attributable to Uganda (Porter
Commission Report, pp. 51, 82, 88‑89, 117, 121-123 and 162). Furthermore,
United Nations reports published after the Porter Commission
Report substantiated the existence of such patterns of diamond exploitation
in Ituri (see e.g. the MONUC special report on the events in Ituri,
UN doc. S/2004/573 of 16 July 2004, para. 133; Mapping Report,
para. 768) and outside Ituri (see e.g. Mapping Report, para. 748).
309. In these circumstances, the Court considers Mr. Nest’s methodology,
which, in essence, corresponds to the one he adopted for gold, and
his assessment to be a persuasive reference for the Court’s determination
of the extent and valuation of damage for which Uganda owes reparation.
310. The Court considers that there is sufficient evidence to conclude
that Uganda is responsible for damage resulting from the looting, plundering
and exploitation of diamonds within the range of the assessment
of the expert report. On this basis, the Court will award compensation for
this form of damage as part of a global sum for all damage to natural
resources (see paragraph 366 below).
(c) Coltan
311. The DRC claims US$2,915,880 for damage resulting from the
plundering, looting, and illegal exploitation of coltan and niobium, one of
the minerals extracted from coltan.
312. The DRC refers to various reports indicating that Uganda controlled
coltan mines in Bafwasende and Mambasa in order to substantiate
its claim that coltan was one of the natural resources unlawfully exploited
114 activités armées (arrêt)
105
illégalement exploitées, soit en Ituri soit par des forces ougandaises hors
Ituri. Elle fait également fond sur le rapport final du groupe d’experts de
l’ONU, où il est indiqué que des soldats des UPDF exploitaient des mines
de coltan, faisaient payer aux prospecteurs un droit journalier pour l’exploitation
d’une zone et entretenaient des relations avec une société du
nom de La Conmet qui acheminait le coltan de la province Orientale en
RDC vers l’Ouganda, puis vers le Kazakhstan.
313. Pour étayer l’ampleur de l’exploitation du coltan par l’Ouganda,
la RDC s’appuie sur un rapport de 2002 du groupe parlementaire du Parlement
britannique sur la région des Grands Lacs et la prévention du
génocide, qui repose notamment sur des statistiques fournies par le Gouvernement
ougandais. Ce rapport contient des statistiques relatives aux
exportations ougandaises de coltan et de niobium au cours de la période
concernée. La RDC affirme que l’Ouganda — qui ne produit pas de coltan
lui-
même — en a exporté au total 90 640 kilogrammes entre 1998
et 2000.
314. Se fondant sur des informations communiquées par La Conmet,
la RDC soutient que, pendant la période pertinente, le coltan s’échangeait
au prix de 17 dollars des Etats‑Unis par kilogramme. Les 90 640 kilogrammes
qui auraient été exploités par l’Ouganda représentaient donc
une valeur de 1 540 880 dollars des Etats‑Unis. La RDC affirme qu’il ressort
aussi des éléments de preuve que l’Ouganda a exporté du niobium
pour une valeur totale de 1 375 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pendant cette
même période. Additionnant les chiffres relatifs au coltan et au niobium,
elle allègue que les dommages subis s’élèvent au moins à 2 915 880 dollars
des Etats‑Unis.
*
315. L’Ouganda soutient que la RDC n’a fourni aucune justification
étayant, en droit, sa demande d’indemnisation à raison de l’exploitation
du coltan/niobium.
316. L’Ouganda affirme que la demande de la RDC n’est pas étayée par
les « données économiques » sur la base desquelles celle-
ci tente de démontrer
l’ampleur de l’exploitation illégale du coltan/niobium par l’Ouganda.
Selon lui, les données tirées du rapport de 2002 du groupe parlementaire
du Parlement britannique sur la région des Grands Lacs et la prévention
du génocide reprennent celles initialement présentées dans le premier rapport
du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, qui sont elles-mêmes fondées sur des
statistiques relatives aux exportations apparemment reçues du ministère
ougandais de l’énergie et du développement minéral. L’Ouganda fait
observer que ces statistiques ne se rapportent même pas au coltan mais
uniquement au niobium et au tantale. Il soutient en outre qu’elles montrent
que la valeur des exportations de niobium pendant la période du conflit
était près de cinq fois inférieure à celle avancée par la RDC et que, même
en y ajoutant la valeur des exportations de tantale, le chiffre obtenu serait
encore près de trois fois moins élevé que celui évalué par la RDC.
armed activities (judgment) 114
105
either in Ituri or by Ugandan forces outside Ituri. The DRC also relies on
the final UNPE report, according to which UPDF soldiers operated
coltan mines, charged diggers a daily fee to exploit an area, and had connections
with a company called La Conmet that transported coltan from
Orientale Province in the DRC to Uganda and then to Kazakhstan.
313. In order to substantiate the extent of coltan exploitation by
Uganda, the DRC relies on a 2002 report by the British All‑Party Parliamentary
Group on the Great Lakes and Genocide Prevention, which is
based, inter alia, on statistics provided by the Ugandan Government. The
report contains Ugandan export statistics of coltan and niobium in the
relevant period. The DRC submits that Uganda, while not producing
coltan itself, exported a total of 90,640 kg of coltan between 1998
and 2000.
314. Relying on information from La Conmet, the DRC submits that
the market price of coltan during the relevant period was US$17 per kilogram.
The 90,640 kg allegedly exploited by Uganda thus had a value of
US$1,540,880. The DRC asserts that the evidence also shows that Ugandan
exports of niobium had a total value of US$1,375,000 during the
relevant period. Combining the figures for coltan and niobium, the DRC
argues that the damage it suffered amounts to at least US$2,915,880.
*
315. Uganda maintains that the DRC has offered no legal basis for an
award of monetary compensation for the exploitation of coltan/niobium.
316. Uganda contends that the “economic data” on the basis of which
the DRC attempts to demonstrate the extent of unlawful coltan/niobium
exploitation by Uganda do not support the DRC’s claim. According to
Uganda, the data taken from the 2002 report by the British All‑Party
Parliamentary Group on the Great Lakes and Genocide Prevention
reproduce the data originally presented in the first UNPE report, which
in turn is based on export statistics apparently received from Uganda’s
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development. Uganda claims that these
statistics do not even refer to coltan, but only to niobium and tantalum.
Uganda further maintains that these statistics show that the value of niobium
exports during the period of the conflict was nearly five times less
than that claimed by the DRC and, even with the addition of the export
value of tantalum, still nearly three times lower than the DRC’s assessment.
115 activités armées (arrêt)
106
317. L’Ouganda considère en outre que, pour autant que du coltan
provenant de la RDC ait transité par le territoire ougandais, ce transit
s’est fait dans le cadre d’échanges commerciaux réguliers. Il affirme que la
RDC devait présenter des éléments convaincants attestant que des quantités
spécifiques de coltan avaient transité par l’Ouganda en raison de faits
internationalement illicites spécifiques attribuables à ce dernier, ce qu’elle
n’a pas fait. L’Ouganda soutient que la commission Porter a réfuté l’argument
selon lequel les exportations ougandaises de niobium étaient liées
à l’exploitation illégale de ressources congolaises.
*
318. M. Nest relève que la « très grande majorité » de la production
informelle de coltan en RDC provenait de ce qu’il a appelé la « zone d’influence
rwandaise ». Il juge toutefois que, hors Ituri, « il est raisonnable de
penser que des membres des UPDF ont volé des quantités mineures de
[coltan] ». Selon lui, la valeur estimative du coltan illégalement exploité
par l’Ouganda s’élève à 375 487 dollars des Etats‑Unis, dont 63 038 dollars
des Etats-Unis en Ituri et 312 449 dollars des Etats-Unis hors Ituri.
* *
319. Les éléments de preuve produits par la RDC ne sauraient justifier
de manière convaincante que celle-
ci demande 2 915 880 dollars des
Etats‑Unis à raison de l’exploitation du coltan. La commission Porter a
considéré que les allégations contenues dans l’« étude de cas » relative à
La Conmet et dans les rapports du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, sur lesquels
se fonde la RDC, n’étaient pas étayées par des éléments de preuve
crédibles. La Cour note également que divers incidents en rapport avec
l’exploitation du coltan par le Rwanda peuvent être recensés à la lecture
des éléments de preuve disponibles, donnant ainsi du crédit à l’observation
de M. Nest, selon laquelle la production informelle de ce minerai
provenait essentiellement de ce qu’il appelle la « zone d’influence rwandaise
».
320. Dans le même temps, certains éléments dénotent une exploitation
du coltan par des membres des UPDF en Ituri et hors Ituri. Dans son
rapport final, le groupe d’experts de l’ONU a fait observer que divers
groupes armés exploitaient ce minerai en Ituri sous la protection des
UPDF (rapport final du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, Nations Unies,
doc. S/2002/1146 du 16 octobre 2002, p. 23, par. 108). Les experts de
l’ONU ont également décrit plusieurs affrontements entre les UPDF et
d’autres forces, et même au sein des UPDF, pour le contrôle de zones
riches en coltan hors Ituri (ibid., p. 22, par. 101). Le transport transfrontalier
de ce minerai dans des véhicules appartenant au chef d’état‑major
des UPDF est également attesté par certains documents. Le rapport
Mapping expose ainsi en détail les mesures prises par les UPDF en représailles
d’une attaque contre l’un de leurs convois de coltan sur la route de
armed activities (judgment) 115
106
317. Uganda further considers that, to the extent that coltan from the
DRC may have transited through Uganda, it did so in the normal course
of trade. It argues that the DRC had to present convincing evidence that
specific amounts of coltan transited through Uganda as a result of specific
internationally wrongful acts attributable to Uganda, which it has
failed to do. Uganda maintains that the Porter Commission refuted the
claim that Uganda’s exports of niobium were connected to the illegal
exploitation of Congolese resources.
*
318. Mr. Nest notes that the “overwhelming majority” of informal
coltan production in the DRC was in what he called the “Rwandan area
of influence”. However, he finds that, outside Ituri, “it is reasonable to
assume some UPDF personnel stole minor quantities of [coltan]”.
Mr. Nest estimates that the value of coltan unlawfully exploited by
Uganda amounts to US$375,487 of which US$63,038 in Ituri and
US$312,449 outside Ituri.
* *
319. The evidence furnished by the DRC does not provide a convincing
basis for its claim of US$2,915,880 for coltan. The Porter Commission
found that the allegations contained in the La Conmet “case study”
and in the UNPE reports, on which the DRC relies, were not supported
by credible evidence. The Court further notes that various incidents
involving Rwandan exploitation of coltan can be identified from the
available evidence, thus giving credence to Mr. Nest’s observation that
most of the informal coltan production was in what Mr. Nest calls the
“Rwandan area of influence”.
320. At the same time, there are certain indications of coltan exploitation
by UPDF personnel in Ituri, as well as outside Ituri. In its final
report, the UNPE observed that various armed groups exploited coltan in
Ituri under the protection of the UPDF (Final UNPE report,
UN doc. S/2002/1146 of 16 October 2002, p. 21, para. 108). The
United Nations experts also described several clashes between the UPDF
and other forces, and even within the UPDF itself, for control of
coltan‑rich areas outside Ituri (ibid., p. 20, para. 101). The cross‑border
transportation of coltan in vehicles belonging to the Chief of Staff of the
UPDF is also documented. For example, the Mapping Report details
measures taken by the UPDF in retaliation for an attack on one of their
coltan convoys on the road to Butembo (Mapping Report, para. 743).
A 2001 HRW report describes how Mai‑Mai fighters ambushed UPDF
116 activités armées (arrêt)
107
Butembo (rapport Mapping, par. 743). Un rapport établi en 2001 par
HRW décrit l’embuscade tendue à des soldats des UPDF par des guerriers
maï‑maï afin d’intercepter un camion transportant un chargement de
coltan d’une valeur d’environ 70 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis (HRW,
« Uganda in Eastern DRC. Fueling Political and Ethnic Strife », p. 5).
321. Dans ces conditions, la Cour considère que la méthode et l’évaluation
de M. Nest constituent une base convaincante pour déterminer
l’ampleur et le montant des dommages imputables au comportement
internationalement illicite de l’Ouganda.
322. La Cour considère qu’il existe des éléments de preuve suffisants
pour conclure que l’Ouganda est responsable du dommage résultant du
pillage et de l’exploitation du coltan à hauteur de l’évaluation du rapport
d’expertise. Sur cette base, la Cour adjugera une indemnisation pour ce
type de dommages dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble
des dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles (voir le paragraphe
366 ci‑dessous).
d) Etain et tungstène
323. La RDC demande 257 667 dollars des Etats‑Unis à raison de l’exploitation
d’étain et 82 147 dollars des Etats‑Unis à raison de l’exploitation
de tungstène. Ces demandes ne figuraient pas dans ses conclusions
écrites, mais ont été introduites après la présentation du rapport d’expertise
qui prenait ces deux minerais en considération. Ainsi, les montants
réclamés par la RDC et la méthode qui les sous-tend sont fondés sur le
rapport d’expertise de M. Nest.
*
324. L’Ouganda soutient que la RDC n’a pas apporté la preuve d’un
quelconque dommage ni fourni la moindre évaluation relativement à
l’étain et au tungstène. Selon lui, les estimations de M. Nest doivent être
écartées au motif qu’elles vont à l’encontre de la règle non ultra petita, qui
empêche la Cour d’adjuger à une partie davantage que ce qu’elle a demandé.
*
325. Selon le rapport de M. Nest, le minerai d’étain extrait en RDC se
trouve souvent dans les mêmes gisements que le coltan. Se référant à la
« triade » que constituent l’étain, la tantalite et le tungstène, l’expert relève
dans son rapport qu’« [e]xclure l’étain et le tungstène serait une erreur [en
raison] du fort intérêt qu’ils suscitent et du rôle qu’ils ont joué dans le
conflit en RDC ». Dans le même temps, il note que la valeur exploitée à
partir de l’étain et du tungstène par des membres des UPDF, ou par
d’autres acteurs en Ituri, était probablement réduite. Lorsqu’il explique
pourquoi il a traité de ces deux minerais dans le rapport d’expertise,
M. Nest précise ceci : « Notre rapport estime que la valeur exploitée à
partir de l’étain et du tungstène a été modeste. Cependant, compte tenu
armed activities (judgment) 116
107
soldiers in order to intercept a truck transporting a supply of coltan with
a value of around US$70,000 (HRW, “Uganda in Eastern DRC. Fueling
Political and Ethnic Strife”, p. 5).
321. In light of these circumstances, the Court considers Mr. Nest’s
methodology and assessment to be a persuasive basis for the Court’s
determination of the extent and valuation of damage attributable to
Uganda’s internationally wrongful conduct.
322. The Court considers that there is sufficient evidence to conclude
that Uganda is responsible for damage resulting from the looting, plundering
and exploitation of coltan within the range of the assessment of
the expert report. On this basis, the Court will award compensation for
this form of damage as part of a global sum for all damage to natural
resources (see paragraph 366 below).
(d) Tin and tungsten
323. The DRC claims US$257,667 for the exploitation of tin and
US$82,147 for the exploitation of tungsten. These claims were not contained
in the DRC’s written submissions but were introduced after the
submission of the expert report, which included both minerals in its study.
Accordingly, the amounts claimed by the DRC and the underlying methodology
are based on the expert report by Mr. Nest.
*
324. Uganda submits that the DRC has not proven any damage or
provided any valuation with respect to tin and tungsten. According to
Uganda, Mr. Nest’s estimates must be disregarded because they are contrary
to the non ultra petita rule, which precludes the Court from awarding
a party more than it requested.
*
325. According to the report by Mr. Nest, tin ore extracted in the
DRC is often found in the same ore body as coltan. Referring to the
“3Ts” — tin, tantalite and tungsten — the expert notes in his report that,
“[e]xcluding tin and tungsten given the attention paid to these resources
would be an error [because of] intense interest in these minerals and their
connection to conflict in [the] DRC”. At the same time, Mr. Nest notes
that probably only limited value was exploited from tin and tungsten by
UPDF personnel or by other actors in Ituri. When explaining the inclusion
of the two minerals in the expert report, he clarifies that “[t]his report
estimates that limited value was exploited from tin and tungsten. However,
given public interest in these resources they have been included to
117 activités armées (arrêt)
108
de l’intérêt que suscitent ces deux ressources dans la population, nous les
avons ajoutées à notre sélection, ne serait-ce que pour signaler leur modicité
relative comme source de valeur exploitée par le personnel concerné,
tant [en] Ituri que … hors Ituri. »
* *
326. La Cour considère que le mandat tel que défini permettait d’inclure
l’étain et le tungstène parmi les questions examinées dans le rapport
d’expertise (voir le paragraphe 276 ci-
dessus).
Elle relève que le rapport
d’expertise de M. Nest ne fait état que d’éléments attestant le transit de
petites quantités d’étain et de tungstène à travers l’Ituri, transit qui n’est
pas en soi constitutif de pillage ou d’exploitation. En particulier, M. Nest
souligne avoir traité de ces deux minerais uniquement « pour signaler leur
modicité relative comme source de valeur exploitée par le personnel
concerné, tant [en] Ituri que … hors Ituri » (voir le paragraphe 325 ci‑dessus).
327. Etant donné que les éléments de preuve relatifs à l’étain et au
tungstène sont limités et que l’expert a relevé la modicité relative de ces
ressources s’agissant des quantités exploitées et de la valeur correspondante,
la Cour décide qu’elle ne tiendra pas compte de ces deux minerais
pour déterminer l’indemnisation due pour les dommages afférents aux
ressources naturelles.
3. Flore
a) Café
328. La RDC inclut dans sa demande de réparation les dommages
résultant de l’exploitation illégale du café et reprend les montants indiqués
dans le rapport d’expertise de M. Nest, à savoir 2 046 568 dollars
des Etats‑Unis (Ituri) et 722 804 dollars des Etats‑Unis (hors Ituri), soit
un montant total de 2 769 372 dollars des Etats‑Unis.
*
329. L’Ouganda fait observer que la RDC n’a apporté aucune preuve
de dommage ni fourni aucune évaluation concernant sa demande relative
au café. Il soutient que les estimations de M. Nest doivent être écartées
par la Cour au motif qu’elles vont à l’encontre de la règle non ultra petita.
*
330. L’expert désigné par la Cour indique que, à son sens, le mandat
qui lui a été confié n’était pas exhaustif. Il soutient que, comme il lui était
expressément demandé d’établir son rapport en se fondant sur les travaux
du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, « [n]e pas tenir compte du café serait à
armed activities (judgment) 117
108
flag their relative insignificance as sources of value exploited by personnel
in either Ituri or non‑Ituri.”
* *
326. The Court considers that the inclusion of tin and tungsten in the
scope of the expert report was permissible under the terms of reference
(see paragraph 276 above). The Court notes that Mr. Nest’s expert report
refers only to evidence of the transit of small quantities of tin and tungsten
through Ituri, which in itself does not constitute looting, plundering
or exploitation. In particular, he underlines that he included those two
minerals only “in order to flag their relative insignificance as sources of
value exploited by personnel in either Ituri or non‑Ituri” (see paragraph
325 above).
327. Given that there is limited evidence relating to tin and tungsten
and that the expert noted the relative insignificance of these resources, in
terms of the quantities exploited and the corresponding value, the Court
decides that it will not take these two minerals into account in determining
the compensation due for damage to natural resources.
3. Flora
(a) Coffee
328. The DRC includes in its claim for reparation the damage resulting
from the unlawful exploitation of coffee, and adopts the amounts
given in Mr. Nest’s expert report, namely US$2,046,568 (Ituri) and
US$722,804 (outside Ituri), amounting to US$2,769,372 in total.
*
329. Uganda submits that the DRC has not proven any damage or
provided any valuation with respect to its claim for coffee. Uganda contends
that Mr. Nest’s estimates should be disregarded by the Court since
they were made contrary to the non ultra petita rule.
*
330. The Court‑appointed expert explains that he understood the
terms of reference to be non‑exhaustive. He maintains that, since he was
explicitly asked to base his report on the UNPE reports, “[n]eglecting coffee,
in [his] view, would be an error” as “UNPE (2001a; 2001b; 2002a;
118 activités armées (arrêt)
109
[s]on avis une erreur » puisque « le groupe d’experts (GENU 2001a ;
2001b ; 2002a ; 2002b) et la mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
en République démocratique du Congo (MONUC 2004) incluent expressément
le café dans leurs rapports ». Il évalue les dommages résultant de
l’exploitation du café à 2 046 568 dollars des Etats‑Unis (Ituri) et à
722 804 dollars des Etats‑Unis (hors Ituri), soit un montant total de
2 769 372 dollars des Etats‑Unis. Selon M. Nest, « [d]ans l’Ituri, toutes les
forces armées ont probablement volé des quantités limitées de café » et,
« hors Ituri, les vols éventuels de café par des membres des UPDF ont
probablement porté sur des quantités mineures ».
* *
331. La Cour considère que le mandat tel que défini permettait d’inclure
le café parmi les questions examinées dans le rapport d’expertise
(voir le paragraphe 276 ci-
dessus).
Les conclusions de M. Nest relatives
au café sont corroborées dans une certaine mesure par d’autres éléments
de preuve. Ainsi, la commission Porter a confirmé des allégations donnant
des indications du pillage et de l’exploitation du café attribuables à
l’Ouganda hors Ituri (voir, par exemple, le rapport de la commission Porter,
p. 18, 82‑83 et 89), où — selon l’expert — 70 % du café exploité était
produit. Les constatations de la commission Porter mentionnant le café
ont également été citées par la Cour en 2005 (C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 250‑251, par. 240 et 242, où il est fait référence au paragraphe 13.1 du
rapport de la commission Porter). L’exploitation du café en Ituri est aussi
mentionnée dans un rapport établi en 2001 par HRW (HRW, « Uganda
in Eastern DRC. Fueling Political and Ethnic Strife », p. 39). Par conséquent,
la Cour estime qu’il existe des éléments de preuve suffisants pour
lui permettre de conclure que l’Ouganda est responsable des dommages
résultant du pillage et de l’exploitation du café.
332. Toutefois, étant donné que ces rapports ne contiennent que des
éléments de preuve anecdotiques et que l’expert n’a pu s’appuyer par ailleurs
que sur un rapport non corroboré d’une organisation non gouvernemantale
congolaise, la Cour juge approprié d’adjuger une indemnité d’un
niveau inférieur à celui calculé par l’expert qu’elle a désigné. Sur cette
base, la Cour adjugera une indemnisation pour ce type de dommages
dans le cadre d’une somme globale allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages
afférents aux ressources naturelles (voir le paragraphe 366 ci‑dessous).
b) Bois d’oeuvre
333. La RDC demande 100 millions de dollars des Etats‑Unis à raison
de l’exploitation illégale de bois d’oeuvre. Au cours de la procédure orale,
elle a affirmé qu’elle réclamait « pour la flore, à titre principal, 100 millions
de dollars des Etats‑Unis, et à titre subsidiaire, [un] montant … d’au
moins 85 483 758 dollars des Etats‑Unis [pour les dommages en Ituri] ».
armed activities (judgment) 118
109
2002b) and MONUC (2004) specifically include coffee in their reports”.
He estimates the damage resulting from the exploitation of coffee at
US$2,046,568 (Ituri) and US$722,804 (outside Ituri), amounting to a
total of US$2,769,372. According to Mr. Nest, “[w]ithin Ituri all armed
forces probably stole limited quantities of coffee”, and “[o]utside Ituri,
any theft of coffee by UPDF personnel was probably minor”.
* *
331. The Court considers that the inclusion of coffee in the scope of
the expert report was permissible under the terms of reference (see paragraph
276 above). Mr. Nest’s findings with respect to coffee are corroborated
to a certain extent by other evidence. For instance, the Porter
Commission confirmed allegations indicating the looting, plundering and
exploitation of coffee attributable to Uganda outside Ituri (e.g. Porter
Commission Report, pp. 18, 82‑83 and 89) where, according to the expert,
70 per cent of the exploited coffee was produced. The findings of the Porter
Commission regarding coffee were also cited by the Court in 2005
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 250‑251, paras. 240 and 242, with reference to
paragraph 13.1 of the Porter Commission Report). The exploitation of
coffee in Ituri is further mentioned in a 2001 HRW report (HRW,
“Uganda in Eastern DRC. Fueling Political and Ethnic Strife”, p. 39).
The Court therefore considers that there is sufficient evidence to conclude
that Uganda is responsible for damage resulting from the looting, plundering
and exploitation of coffee.
332. However, since these reports only contain anecdotal evidence,
and since the expert could otherwise only rely on an uncorroborated
report by a Congolese non-governmental
organization, the Court considers
that it is appropriate to award compensation at a level lower than that
calculated by the Court‑appointed expert. On this basis, the Court will
award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for
all damage to natural resources (see paragraph 366 below).
(b) Timber
333. The DRC claims US$100 million for the unlawful exploitation of
timber. During the oral proceedings, the DRC stated that it was claiming,
“in respect of flora, primarily, US$100 million, and, in the alternative,
the . . . minimum amount of US$85,483,758 [for damage within Ituri]”.
The DRC contends that the invasion and occupation of Congolese terri-
119 activités armées (arrêt)
110
Elle soutient que l’invasion et l’occupation de son territoire par les forces
armées ougandaises ont occasionné des dommages à la flore congolaise,
notamment en raison de la déforestation liée à l’exploitation de bois
d’oeuvre, dans la province Orientale et la province du Nord-Kivu.
334. Pour étayer l’ampleur des dommages et la mesure dans laquelle
ceux-
ci sont attribuables à l’Ouganda, la RDC s’appuie essentiellement
sur l’étude de cas relative à la société DARA‑Forest émanant du premier
rapport du groupe d’experts de l’ONU (Nations Unies, doc. S/2001/357
du 12 avril 2001, par. 47-54). La RDC affirme que l’importance du préjudice
commercial est illustrée par la valeur marchande des 48 000 mètres
cubes de bois d’oeuvre que DARA‑Forest a exportés annuellement et
exclusivement vers l’Ouganda entre septembre 1998 et 2003 depuis le territoire
où opérait l’armée ougandaise. Elle admet que le groupe d’experts
de l’ONU a revu son analyse concernant la société DARA‑Forest et
relevé que le Gouvernement de la RDC semblait continuer de reconnaître
les sociétés opérant dans des régions tenues par les rebelles. Elle admet
également que la commission Porter, dans son rapport, a contesté nombre
des éléments avancés par le groupe d’experts de l’ONU dans son rapport
initial, dont l’allégation selon laquelle un lien existait entre les autorités
ougandaises et la société DARA‑Forest. Aux dires de la RDC, l’analyse
détaillée de la commission Porter fait apparaître divers exemples d’exploitation
dont l’Ouganda était responsable, notamment la réalité de la
contrebande du bois d’oeuvre dans la province Orientale et la province du
Nord-Kivu, l’implication des UPDF dans ce trafic, ainsi que l’ampleur et
le volume de l’activité de DARA-Forest.
La RDC souligne en outre que
le groupe d’experts de l’ONU et la commission Porter confirment que les
forêts exploitées, à l’exception de celle de Beni, se trouvent en Ituri, où
l’Ouganda était puissance occupante (rapport de la commission Porter,
p. 54‑55 et 61-62).
335. La RDC fonde principalement sa demande sur la valeur commerciale
alléguée des exportations de la société DARA-Forest.
Elle utilise des
données relatives aux prix à l’exportation obtenues auprès de l’Organisation
internationale des bois tropicaux pour calculer la valeur commerciale
totale du bois d’oeuvre exporté par DARA-Forest
entre 1998 et 2003. Sur
la base de ces données pour les années concernées, elle avance un prix
moyen d’exportation de 439,30 dollars des Etats‑Unis par mètre cube de
bois tropical scié. Les activités illicites de DARA‑Forest s’étant poursuivies
pendant quatre ans et demi, ces exportations représentent, selon la
RDC, un montant total de 94 888 800 dollars des Etats‑Unis.
*
336. Selon l’Ouganda, la RDC n’a produit aucune preuve pour justifier
l’indemnité qu’elle demande à raison de la déforestation.
337. S’agissant de l’étendue des dommages allégués, l’Ouganda fait
observer que la demande de la RDC se fonde entièrement sur l’étude de
cas relative à DARA-Forest,
que la commission Porter a dénoncée comme
armed activities (judgment) 119
110
tory by Ugandan armed forces damaged the DRC’s flora, particularly
through deforestation for the purposes of timber exploitation, in the
provinces of Orientale and North Kivu.
334. To substantiate the extent of the damage and its attribution to
Uganda, the DRC mainly relies on the case study concerning the DARA-Forest
company taken from the first UNPE report (UN doc. S/2001/357
of 12 April 2001, paras. 47‑54). The DRC states that the scale of the commercial
damage is illustrated by the market value of the 48,000 cubic
metres of timber that DARA-Forest
exported annually and exclusively to
Uganda between September 1998 and 2003 from the territory where the
Ugandan army was operating. The DRC admits that the UNPE amended
its analysis in relation to the DARA-Forest
company and noted that it
appeared that the Government of the DRC still recognized the companies
operating in rebel‑held areas. The DRC also acknowledges that the
Porter
Commission Report disputed many of the assertions made by
the UNPE in its initial report, including the claim linking Ugandan
authorities to the DARA-Forest
company. The DRC maintains that the
Commission’s detailed analysis indicates various instances of exploitation
for which Uganda was responsible, including timber smuggling in the
provinces of Orientale and North Kivu, the UPDF’s involvement in that
trafficking, and the scale and volume of the activity of DARA-Forest.
The DRC also highlights that the UNPE and the Porter Commission
confirm that the harvested forests, except the one in Beni, are located in
Ituri, where Uganda was the occupying Power (Porter Commission Report,
pp. 54‑55 and 61‑62).
335. The DRC mainly bases its claim on the alleged commercial value
of exports by the DARA-Forest
company. The DRC uses data on export
prices from the International Tropical Timber Organization to calculate
the total commercial value of the timber exported by DARA-Forest
between 1998 and 2003. Based on these data for the relevant years,
the DRC puts forward an average export price of US$439.30
per cubic metre for tropical sawn timber. It submits that DARA-Forest’s
illegal exports spanned a period of four and a half years. On that basis,
the DRC calculates that those exports have a total commercial value of
US$94,888,800.
*
336. In Uganda’s view, the DRC has submitted no evidence to justify
the compensation claimed for deforestation.
337. As to the extent of the alleged damage, Uganda observes that the
DRC’s claim is founded entirely on the case study of DARA-Forest,
which the Porter Commission refuted as “fundamentally flawed” and
120 activités armées (arrêt)
111
étant « fondamentalement viciée » et que le groupe d’experts de l’ONU a
lui‑même désavouée. Il souligne que, selon la commission Porter, « les
activités de DARA ne constituaient pas une exploitation illégale » et
« n’auraient donc pas dû servir de fondement aux critiques » le visant.
L’Ouganda relève en outre la conclusion de la commission Porter, qui a
indiqué « ne dispos[er] d’aucun élément prouvant que l’Ouganda, en tant
que pays ou que gouvernement, récolt[ât] du bois d’oeuvre en République
démocratique du Congo ». Selon l’Ouganda, pour les rares cas où la commission
Porter décrit la participation de soldats ougandais à l’exploitation
de bois d’oeuvre, la RDC ne produit aucun élément permettant de
préciser et d’établir le préjudice exact qui en serait résulté.
338. L’Ouganda conteste en outre la méthode d’évaluation employée
par la RDC, en particulier l’utilisation que celle-
ci fait de la valeur marchande
pour calculer le dommage, et soutient que tout préjudice causé à
la RDC est nécessairement limité au manque à gagner en matière de paiements
liés aux concessions et de recettes fiscales. En l’occurrence, toutefois,
aucune indemnisation n’est, selon l’Ouganda, due puisque les
éléments de preuve produits par la RDC elle‑même montrent que DARA-Forest
a respecté tous les règlements en vigueur et s’est acquittée des
impôts dont elle était redevable. L’Ouganda ajoute que, même si le prix
des exportations de bois d’oeuvre était pertinent aux fins de la présente
analyse, la valeur moyenne avancée par la RDC n’est pas étayée par des
éléments de preuve fiables.
*
339. M. Nest utilise une « proxy tax » (voir le paragraphe 271 ci‑dessus)
pour parvenir à la conclusion que le montant de l’indemnité
due à la RDC pour le préjudice lié à l’exploitation du bois s’élève à
3 438 704 dollars des Etats‑Unis (2 793 301 dollars des Etats‑Unis en Ituri
et 645 402 dollars des Etats‑Unis hors Ituri).
* *
340. La Cour est d’avis que les preuves produites par la RDC ne justifient
pas le montant de l’indemnisation réclamé à raison de l’exploitation
illégale de bois d’oeuvre. La méthode appliquée par la RDC pour démontrer
le bien-fondé de sa demande n’est pas convaincante. La commission
Porter a conclu que l’étude de cas relative à DARA-Forest
était « fondamentalement
viciée » et que « pas une seule des allégations formulées dans
cette prétendue étude n’[étai]t étayée » (rapport de la commission Porter,
p. 64). Qui plus est, s’agissant de la zone hors Ituri, les éléments de preuve
invoqués par la RDC n’attestent pas la participation de l’Ouganda à l’exploitation
de bois d’oeuvre par DARA-Forest.
D’après l’additif au rapport
du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, la licence d’exploitation détenue par
DARA-Forest
lui avait été accordée par le Gouvernement congolais, qui
a continué d’approuver les activités menées par cette société dans les
armed activities (judgment) 120
111
which the UNPE itself retracted. Uganda points to the findings of the
Porter Commission according to which “Dara’s operation . . . was not
illegal exploitation” and “therefore should not have been . . . used as a
basis for criticism” of Uganda. Moreover, Uganda highlights the Commission’s
conclusion that “[t]here is no evidence . . . that Uganda as a
country or as a [g]overnment harvests timber in the Democratic Republic
of Congo”. Uganda maintains that with regard to the few instances in
which the Porter Commission described the involvement of Ugandan soldiers
in the exploitation of timber, the DRC offers no evidence specifying
and proving the exact injury resulting from such exploitation.
338. Uganda also criticizes the DRC’s method of valuation, in particular
its use of market value to calculate the damage, arguing that any
injury to the DRC would have been limited to lost concession payments
and taxes. However, according to Uganda, in the present case no compensation
is due since the DRC’s own evidence showed that DARA-Forest
adhered to all the regulations in force and paid its taxes. Uganda
adds that, even if the price of timber exports were relevant to this analysis,
the average price claimed by the DRC is unsupported by reliable evidence.
*
339. Mr. Nest uses a “proxy tax” (see paragraph 271 above) to arrive
at the conclusion that the DRC is owed compensation for the timber
exploitation in the amount of US$3,438,704 (US$2,793,301 in Ituri;
US$645,402 outside Ituri).
* *
340. The Court is of the view that the evidence submitted by the DRC
does not support the amount claimed as compensation for the unlawful
exploitation of timber. The methodology applied by the DRC to substantiate
its claim is not convincing. The Porter Commission concluded that
the DARA-Forest
case study “was fundamentally flawed” and that it was
“unable to find support for any single allegation made in this so‑called
Case Study” (Porter Commission Report, p. 64). Furthermore, as to areas
outside Ituri, the evidence on which the DRC relies does not prove
Uganda’s
involvement in the exploitation of timber by the DARA-Forest
company. According to the addendum to the report of the UNPE, the
exploitation licence held by DARA-Forest
was granted by the Congolese
Government which continued to approve the company’s operations in
rebel‑held areas. Moreover, according to the Porter Commission Report,
121 activités armées (arrêt)
112
zones contrôlées par les rebelles. De plus, selon le rapport de la commission
Porter, durant l’occupation de l’Ituri, DARA‑Forest a continué de
s’acquitter de ses impôts à la même banque qu’avant la prise de la région
par les rebelles (rapport de la commission Porter, p. 62‑63).
341. La Cour a invité la RDC, dans le cadre des questions qu’elle a
posées aux Parties en vertu du paragraphe 1 de l’article 62 de son Règlement,
à lui présenter des éléments de preuve concernant « l’emplacement,
la propriété et la production moyenne de chacune des … forêts — ainsi
que les éventuels permis ou concessions y afférents » ; la RDC n’en a rien
fait et a continué de s’appuyer sur l’étude de cas relative à DARA-Forest
au cours de la procédure orale.
342. La Cour estime en outre que le rapport de M. Nest ne vient guère
justifier le montant réclamé par la RDC. Il est à noter que l’expert y mentionne,
pour le bois d’oeuvre, des prix moyens inférieurs à ceux avancés
par la RDC.
343. La Cour constate néanmoins que le rapport de la commission
Porter contient des éléments indiquant que l’Ouganda était impliqué dans
l’exploitation de bois d’oeuvre (ibid., p. 153). Elle relève également qu’il
existe d’autres preuves de l’exploitation de bois d’oeuvre en Ituri (voir, par
exemple, rapport final du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, Nations Unies,
doc. S/2002/1146 du 16 octobre 2002, p. 22, par. 116 ; rapport Mapping,
par. 751). De plus, le rapport de l’expert qu’elle a désigné indique qu’un
volume considérable du bois exploité provenait de ce que celui-
ci appelle
la « zone d’influence ougandaise ».
344. La Cour estime qu’il existe des éléments de preuve suffisants pour
lui permettre de conclure que l’Ouganda doit réparation à raison des
dommages résultant du pillage et de l’exploitation du bois d’oeuvre. Elle
relève cependant que les calculs de M. Nest concernant le bois d’oeuvre
s’appuient sur des informations moins précises et des estimations plus
approximatives que celles dont il disposait, par exemple, pour l’or. Le
montant de l’indemnité qui sera octroyée devrait donc être nettement
inférieur à son estimation. Sur cette base, la Cour adjugera une indemnisation
pour ce type de dommages dans le cadre d’une somme globale
allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles
(voir le paragraphe 366 ci-
dessous).
c) Dommages environnementaux résultant de la déforestation
345. Dans ses écritures, la RDC n’a pas formulé de demande distincte
à raison de dommages environnementaux et n’a mentionné qu’une seule
fois « l’atteinte à la biodiversité et à l’habitat des espèces animales » dans
le cadre de ses demandes d’indemnisation relatives à la déforestation. Elle
s’est toutefois réservé le droit de compléter sa demande relative aux dommages
causés à la flore, relevant qu’« une étude scientifique a[vait] fait
apparaître que l[a] déforestation massive à l’est du pays [étai]t la plus
marquée dans les zones où [avaie]nt opéré les forces armées ougandaises ».
Dans ses plaidoiries, la RDC a indiqué que sa demande d’indemnisation
armed activities (judgment) 121
112
during the occupation of Ituri DARA-Forest
continued to pay taxes at
the same bank as it had done before the area came under rebel control
(Porter Commission Report, pp. 62‑63).
341. In its questions put to the Parties under Article 62, paragraph 1,
of the Rules of Court, the Court invited the DRC to provide it with evidence
regarding “the locations, ownership, average production, and concessions
or licenses for each . . . forest”. However, the DRC failed to do
so. Instead, the DRC continued to rely on the DARA-Forest
case study
during the oral proceedings.
342. The Court further considers that the report by Mr. Nest provides
little support for the amount claimed by the DRC. Notably, he gives
lower average prices for timber than those put forward by the DRC.
343. However, the Court recognizes that the Porter Commission
Report contains indications that Uganda was involved in timber exploitation
(ibid., p. 153). The Court also notes that there is additional evidence
of exploitation of timber in Ituri (see e.g. Final UNPE report,
UN doc. S/2002/1146 of 16 October 2002, p. 22, para. 116; Mapping
Report, para. 751). Furthermore, the report by the Court‑appointed
expert estimates that a considerable amount of exploited timber stems
from what he terms the “Ugandan area of influence”.
344. The Court considers that there is sufficient evidence to conclude
that Uganda owes reparation for damage resulting from the looting,
plundering and exploitation of timber. The Court nevertheless notes that
Mr. Nest’s calculations in relation to timber are based on less precise
information and rougher estimates than were available to him, for example,
in relation to gold. The amount of compensation should therefore be
considerably lower than his estimate. On this basis, the Court will award
compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum for all
damage to natural resources (see paragraph 366 below).
(c) Environmental damage resulting from deforestation
345. In its written pleadings, the DRC did not raise a separate claim
with respect to environmental damage and referred only once to “damage
done to biodiversity and the habitats of animal species” as part of its
claims for compensation for deforestation. However, the DRC reserved
its right to supplement its claim concerning damage to flora, noting that
“a scientific study ha[d] shown that the massive deforestation in the east
of the country [was] most pronounced in those areas where the Ugandan
armed forces [had been] operating”. In its oral pleadings, the DRC stated
that its claim of US$100,000,000 for damage to flora comprised damage
122 activités armées (arrêt)
113
à hauteur de 100 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les dommages causés
à la flore englobe les dommages liés à l’exploitation commerciale de
bois d’oeuvre et ceux liés à la déforestation, et, partant, les dommages
environnementaux. Etant donné que la RDC estime que l’exploitation
illégale de bois d’oeuvre en Ituri représente un montant situé approximativement
entre 85 500 000 et 95 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis, le surplus
(entre 5 000 000 et 14 500 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis) peut être interprété
comme couvrant les dommages environnementaux résultant de la déforestation,
et en particulier l’atteinte à la biodiversité. Toutefois, la RDC
ne produit aucune preuve quant à l’étendue des dommages en question,
pas plus qu’elle ne précise la méthode employée pour les évaluer.
*
346. L’Ouganda n’a pas traité la demande d’indemnisation présentée
pour les dommages environnementaux séparément de celle relative à l’exploitation
de bois d’oeuvre.
*
347. M. Nest a indiqué que, selon lui, la demande d’indemnisation
présentée
par la RDC à raison de la « déforestation » se rapportait à la
« production de bois d’oeuvre ». Il n’a donc pas traité l’évaluation des dommages
environnementaux séparément de ceux liés à l’exploitation de
bois d’oeuvre.
* *
348. La Cour a estimé qu’« [i]l [étai]t … conforme aux principes du
droit international régissant les conséquences de faits internationalement
illicites, et notamment au principe de la réparation intégrale, de conclure
que les dommages environnementaux ouvr[ai]ent en eux-mêmes droit à
indemnisation » (Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la
région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2018 (I), p. 28, par. 41) et que « les dommages causés à l’environnement,
ainsi que la dégradation ou la perte consécutive de la capacité de
celui-
ci de fournir des biens et services, [étaie]nt susceptibles d’indemnisation
en droit international » (ibid., par. 42).
349. La Cour rappelle également que, en l’affaire relative à Certaines
activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), elle a conclu, s’agissant des dommages environnementaux,
ce qui suit :
« Il se peut … que le dommage soit attribuable à plusieurs causes
concomitantes, ou encore que l’état des connaissances scientifiques
ne permette pas de le relier avec certitude au fait illicite par un lien de
causalité. Ces difficultés doivent être examinées au moment où elles
surviennent, à la lumière des faits propres à l’affaire et des éléments
armed activities (judgment) 122
113
caused by the commercial exploitation of timber and damage caused by
deforestation, and thus environmental damage. Given that the DRC values
the unlawful exploitation of timber in Ituri at between approximately
US$85,500,000 and US$95,000,000, the remainder (between US$5 million
and US$14.5 million) may be understood as covering environmental
damage resulting from deforestation, in particular, a loss of biodiversity.
However, the DRC offers no evidence for the extent of this damage, nor
does it offer a methodology for its valuation.
*
346. Uganda did not address the claim for compensation for environmental
damage separately from that for the exploitation of timber.
*
347. Mr. Nest clarified that he understood the DRC’s claim for damage
due to “deforestation” as referring to “timber production”. Therefore,
he did not address the assessment of environmental damage
separately from the exploitation of timber.
* *
348. The Court has held that “it is consistent with the principles of
international law governing the consequences of internationally wrongful
acts, including the principle of full reparation, to hold that compensation
is due for damage caused to the environment, in and of itself” (Certain
Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 28,
para. 41) and that “damage to the environment, and the consequent
impairment or loss of the ability of the environment to provide goods and
services, is compensable under international law” (ibid., para. 42).
349. The Court also recalls that in Certain Activities Carried Out by
Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), it found with
respect to environmental damage that
“[t]he damage may be due to several concurrent causes, or the state
of science regarding the causal link between the wrongful act and the
damage may be uncertain. These are difficulties that must be addressed
as and when they arise in light of the facts of the case at hand and
the evidence presented to the Court. Ultimately, it is for the Court to
123 activités armées (arrêt)
114
de preuve présentés à la Cour. Il revient in fine à la Cour de décider
s’il existe un lien de causalité suffisant entre le fait illicite et le préjudice
subi. » (Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la
région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 34.)
350. Toutefois, dans la présente affaire, la RDC n’a pas fourni à la
Cour la moindre base lui permettant d’évaluer les dommages causés à
l’environnement, en particulier à la biodiversité, du fait de la déforestation.
La Cour n’étant donc pas en mesure de déterminer, fût‑ce approximativement,
l’étendue du préjudice subi par la RDC, elle rejette la
demande formulée à raison des dommages environnementaux résultant
de la déforestation.
4. Faune
351. Dans son mémoire, la RDC demandait 2 692 980 468 dollars des
Etats‑Unis à raison de dommages directs et indirects qui auraient été causés
à la faune dans quatre parcs nationaux (le parc national des Virunga,
le parc national de la Garamba, la réserve de faune à okapis et le parc
national de la Maïko). Au cours de la procédure orale, elle a précisé
qu’elle réclamait « un montant d’au moins 680 902 068 dollars des
Etats‑Unis » pour les pertes directes survenues dans deux de ses parcs
nationaux, la réserve de faune à okapis et le parc national des Virunga.
352. La RDC soutient que l’évaluation du préjudice relatif à la faune a
été rendue difficile par « l’ampleur même des dommages infligés, leur durée,
la diversité des formes qu’ils ont prises [et] le recueil difficile des données
dans des zones longtemps soumises au contrôle de l’Ouganda ». Elle souligne
que la réserve de faune à okapis est située principalement en Ituri,
laquelle était occupée par l’Ouganda pendant la période pertinente. Elle
précise également que « [l]e parc des Virunga pénètre un peu en Ituri ».
353. Pour étayer sa demande, la RDC s’appuie essentiellement sur une
étude de 2016 intitulée l’« Evaluation des dommages causés à la faune
congolaise par l’Ouganda entre 1998 et 2003 » réalisée par des experts de
l’Université de Kinshasa sur la base d’estimations de l’ICCN, organisme
chargé de la gestion des parcs naturels en RDC. Selon cette étude,
54 892 animaux ont été tués du fait du comportement de l’Ouganda. La
RDC fait également référence à des rapports de l’UNESCO, aux rapports
du groupe d’experts de l’ONU, ainsi qu’à une étude réalisée par l’ICCN
sur la base de comptages aériens effectués en 2003 dans le parc national
des Virunga. En réponse aux critiques émises par l’Ouganda au sujet de la
dernière étude de l’ICCN, la RDC fait valoir que celui-
ci « a procédé à
des comptages aériens effectués en 2003 avec les Sociétés zoologiques de
Londres et de Francfort, l’US Fish and Wildlife Service et le Fonds international
de Rhino » et « comparé[] [ces estimations] à celles de l’UNESCO ».
354. Concernant sa méthode d’évaluation, la RDC affirme que « le prix
fixé pour chaque animal l’a été en fonction des prix habituellement prati-
armed activities (judgment) 123
114
decide whether there is a sufficient causal nexus between the wrongful
act and the injury suffered.” (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua
in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 34.)
350. However, in the present case the DRC did not provide the Court
with any basis for assessing damage to the environment, in particular to
biodiversity, through deforestation. The Court is thus unable to determine
the extent of the DRC’s injury, even on an approximate basis, and
therefore dismisses the claim for environmental damage resulting from
deforestation.
4. Fauna
351. In its Memorial, the DRC claimed US$2,692,980,468 for alleged
direct and indirect loss of wildlife in four national parks (Virunga
National Park, Garamba National Park, the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and
Maiko National Park). During the oral proceedings, the DRC stated that
it was claiming “a minimum amount of US$680,902,068” for direct losses
in two of its national parks, the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Virunga
National Park.
352. The DRC submits that it was difficult to assess the injury related
to fauna given “the sheer scale of the damage inflicted, its duration, the
diversity of forms it took [and] the difficulty of collecting data in areas
which had been under Uganda’s control for a long period”. The DRC
emphasizes that the Okapi Wildlife Reserve is largely located in Ituri,
which was under Ugandan occupation during the relevant period. It also
specifies that “a small part of Virunga Park lies within Ituri”.
353. To substantiate its claim, the DRC mainly relies on a 2016 study
titled “Evaluation of the damage caused to Congolese fauna by Uganda
between 1998 and 2003”, which was prepared by a team of experts from
the University of Kinshasa using the estimates of the ICCN, the body
responsible for managing national parks in the DRC. According to this
study, 54,892 animals were killed as a result of Uganda’s conduct. The
DRC also makes reference to reports by UNESCO, to the UNPE reports
and to a study by the ICCN based on aerial counts in 2003 with respect
to Virunga National Park. In response to Uganda’s criticism of this last
ICCN study, the DRC submits that the ICCN “carried out aerial counts
in 2003, in conjunction with the Zoological Societies of London and
Frankfurt, the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the International Rhino
Foundation” and “compared [its estimates] to those of UNESCO”.
354. With respect to its method of valuation, the DRC contends that
“the price fixed for each animal has been set on the basis of prices habitu-
124 activités armées (arrêt)
115
qués sur les marchés internationaux ou sur les marchés illicites pour les
espèces [inscrites à] l’annexe I de la [convention sur le commerce international
des espèces de faune et de flore sauvages menacées d’extinction] »,
et que ces prix ont ensuite été modulés afin de retenir uniquement la part
du préjudice causée par l’Ouganda.
*
355. L’Ouganda soutient que la demande présentée par la RDC à raison
de dommages causés à la faune n’entre pas dans le champ de l’arrêt
de 2005. En outre, à supposer même que les conclusions de la Cour sur le
fond autorisent la présentation d’une demande d’indemnisation relative à
la faune, les prétentions de la RDC à ce titre excèdent clairement la portée
desdites conclusions, étant donné que, au stade du fond, cet Etat n’a
invoqué devant la Cour qu’un nombre limité de faits ayant causé des
dommages à la faune.
356. L’Ouganda soutient que la RDC est tenue de produire des éléments
de preuve convaincants établissant, avec un degré élevé de certitude,
la matérialité des faits internationalement illicites spécifiques
attribuables à l’Ouganda qui auraient causé des dommages spécifiques à
la faune congolaise, ainsi que le bien-fondé de l’évaluation qui est faite de
ces dommages. Or, dit‑il, les demandes de la RDC ne satisfont pas à ces
exigences. En ce qui concerne les pertes directes, l’Ouganda souligne que
la RDC fonde sa demande sur une source unique, à savoir l’étude réalisée
par l’ICCN, organisme gouvernemental congolais. Il soutient que la RDC
ne précise pas selon quelle méthode et sur quelle base cet organisme a
recueilli et compilé ces renseignements. Il affirme que la RDC semble
avoir inventé les chiffres qu’elle avance aux fins de la présente instance.
L’Ouganda fait remarquer que le rapport de l’UNESCO cité par la RDC
contredit au contraire les constatations de l’ICCN et que les conclusions
du groupe d’experts de l’ONU invoquées par la RDC ont été réfutées par
la commission Porter.
357. Selon l’Ouganda, la RDC assigne des valeurs monétaires aux animaux
abattus et non nés en s’appuyant sur « des prix arbitraires, inappropriés
et de source douteuse », notamment ceux pratiqués sur le « marché
noir ». L’Ouganda soutient aussi que la demande d’indemnisation au titre
du déficit de descendants de première génération conduit à une double
comptabilisation des animaux abattus puisque, en général, la valeur d’un
animal tient compte de sa capacité à se reproduire. Enfin, l’Ouganda
relève des failles dans la méthode qu’emploie la RDC pour calculer le
nombre d’animaux qui seraient nés.
* *
358. La Cour rappelle qu’elle a estimé que les demandes de la RDC
relatives aux dommages causés à la faune entraient dans le champ de son
arrêt de 2005 (voir le paragraphe 276 ci-
dessus).
Elle est toutefois d’avis
armed activities (judgment) 124
115
ally applied in international markets, or in unlawful markets in the case
of species listed in Appendix I to [the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]”, and that these prices
were adjusted to reflect only the share of the damage caused by Uganda.
*
355. Uganda argues that the DRC’s claim for loss of wildlife falls outside
the scope of the 2005 Judgment. Further, even if the Court’s findings
on the merits permitted a claim for compensation relating to wildlife, the
DRC’s claims in this regard clearly exceed the scope of those findings,
given that the DRC only presented to the Court certain limited acts concerning
harm to wildlife at the merits phase.
356. Uganda maintains that the DRC must present convincing evidence
with a high level of certainty of specific internationally wrongful
acts attributable to Uganda that resulted in specific wildlife loss to the DRC,
as well as the valuation of that loss. According to Uganda, the DRC does
not satisfy this requirement. Uganda emphasizes that the DRC bases its
claim for direct losses on a single source, the study by the ICCN, a Congolese
governmental agency. According to Uganda, the DRC does not
explain how and on what basis the ICCN collected and compiled that
information. Uganda asserts that the DRC appears to have fabricated the
numbers claimed for the purposes of this litigation. It points out that the
UNESCO report cited by the DRC in fact contradicts the findings set out
in the study by the ICCN and that the findings of the UNPE on which the
DRC relies were refuted by the Porter Commission.
357. Uganda argues that the DRC assigns monetary values to killed
and unborn animals based on “unreliable, inappropriate and arbitrary
prices”, including “black market” prices. Uganda also asserts that claiming
compensation for unborn offspring leads to double counting because
ordinarily the value of an animal captures its ability to produce offspring.
Finally, Uganda points to flaws in the DRC’s methodology for calculating
the number of offspring that would have been born.
* *
358. The Court recalls that it found that the DRC’s claims relating to
damage to fauna are encompassed by the scope of its 2005 Judgment (see
paragraph 276 above). However, the Court is of the view that the evi-
125 activités armées (arrêt)
116
que les preuves produites par la RDC ne justifient pas le montant avancé
par celle-
ci dans sa demande. Il convient d’envisager avec circonspection
l’étude réalisée en 2016 par des experts de l’Université de Kinshasa (voir
le paragraphe 353 ci-
dessus)
en gardant à l’esprit que la Cour a dit, dans
son arrêt de 2005, qu’elle « traitera[it] avec prudence les éléments de
preuve spécialement établis aux fins d[’une] affaire [dont elle est saisie]
ainsi que ceux provenant d’une source unique » (arrêt de 2005,
C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 201, par. 61). La Cour relève en outre que ni les
études reposant sur des informations émanant de l’ICCN (voir le paragraphe
353 ci-
dessus)
ni le rapport de l’UNESCO cité par la RDC n’expliquent
suffisamment comment ont été obtenues leurs estimations
respectives. De surcroît, ils ne suffisent pas à établir l’existence d’un lien
de causalité entre l’un quelconque des dommages qui se sont produits
dans les trois parcs nationaux hors Ituri et les faits illicites commis par
l’Ouganda. La Cour limitera donc la suite de son examen aux demandes
de la RDC concernant les parties de la réserve de faune à okapis et du
parc national des Virunga qui sont situées en Ituri.
359. La Cour fait observer que certains des dommages allégués par la
RDC se seraient produits dans la réserve de faune à okapis, située à 90 %
en Ituri, et dans la partie septentrionale du parc national des Virunga,
dont une petite partie se trouve en Ituri. La Cour rappelle que l’Ouganda
a engagé sa responsabilité internationale pour avoir manqué à ses obligations
de puissance occupante en Ituri s’agissant de l’ensemble des actes de
pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles commis dans le territoire
occupé, y compris les dommages causés à la faune, et qu’il doit réparation
pour ces dommages (voir les paragraphes 79, 275 et 278 ci-
dessus).
360. La Cour rappelle en outre que « l’absence d’éléments de preuve
suffisants quant à l’étendue des dommages matériels n’exclut pas dans
tous les cas l’octroi d’une indemnisation pour ces derniers » (Certaines
activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 35).
Elle relève que la faune fait en général moins souvent l’objet d’une surveillance
sociale et technique que les êtres humains ou les biens commerciaux.
Dans ce contexte, la Cour accorde un poids particulier aux rapports
des organisations internationales spécifiquement chargées de surveiller les
sites en question, dans la mesure où ces rapports ont une valeur probante
et sont corroborés, si nécessaire, par d’autres sources crédibles.
361. La Cour relève que divers rapports d’organisations internationales
contiennent des éléments tangibles indiquant que des dommages
considérables ont été infligés à la faune en Ituri pendant la période de
l’occupation ougandaise (UNESCO, Le patrimoine mondial dans le bassin
du Congo, 2004, p. 25 ; rapport Mapping, par. 745 ; rapport intérimaire du
groupe d’experts de l’ONU, Nations Unies, doc. S/2002/565 du 22 mai
2002, par. 52). La Cour relève également que l’Ouganda lui-
même a
confirmé l’existence d’un intense braconnage dans le territoire occupé
lorsqu’il a fait observer qu’il avait lancé une initiative de lutte contre le
braconnage (appelée « opération Tango ») dans la réserve de faune à oka-
armed activities (judgment) 125
116
dence submitted by the DRC does not support the amount of its claim.
The 2016 study prepared by a team of experts of the University of Kinshasa
(see paragraph 353 above) needs to be treated with caution, bearing
in mind that the Court stated in its 2005 Judgment that it “w[ould] treat
with caution evidentiary materials specially prepared for [a case before it]
and also materials emanating from a single source” (2005 Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 201, para. 61). Furthermore, the Court notes that
neither the studies that are based on information from the ICCN (see
paragraph 353 above) nor the UNESCO report cited by the DRC sufficiently
explains the way in which the respective estimates were reached.
Furthermore, these reports are insufficient to establish a causal nexus
between any damage in park areas outside Ituri and the wrongful acts of
Uganda. The Court therefore limits its further examination to the claims
of the DRC relating to the parts of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and
Virunga National Park which are located in Ituri.
359. The Court observes that some of the damage claimed by the DRC
is alleged to have occurred in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve, 90 per cent of
which is located in Ituri, and in the northern part of Virunga National
Park, a small part of which is located in Ituri. The Court recalls that
Uganda is internationally responsible for failing to comply with its obligations
as an occupying Power in Ituri in respect of all acts of looting,
plundering or exploitation of natural resources in the occupied territory,
which includes damage to wildlife, and that it owes reparation for such
damage (see paragraphs 79, 275 and 278 above).
360. The Court further recalls that “the absence of adequate evidence
as to the extent of material damage will not, in all situations, preclude an
award of compensation for that damage” (Certain Activities Carried Out
by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26‑27, para. 35). It notes that
wildlife is often subject to less social and technical monitoring than
human beings or commercial goods. In this context, the Court ascribes
particular weight to reports by international organizations specifically
mandated to monitor the sites in question, to the extent that these reports
are of probative value and are corroborated, if necessary, by other credible
sources.
361. The Court notes that various reports from international organizations
contain substantial indications that significant damage was inflicted
upon wildlife in Ituri during the period of Ugandan occupation
(UNESCO, World Heritage in the Congo Basin, 2004, p. 25; Mapping
Report, para. 745; UNPE Interim report, UN doc. S/2002/565 of 22 May
2002, para. 52). The Court also observes that Uganda itself has confirmed
the existence of severe poaching in the occupied territory, when it pointed
out that it had started an anti-poaching
initiative (“Operation Tango”) in
the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Virunga National Park as from late October
2000. In this context, Uganda cites an article, only parts of which
126 activités armées (arrêt)
117
pis et le parc national des Virunga dès la fin du mois d’octobre 2000.
Dans ce contexte, l’Ouganda cite un article, dont il n’a reproduit qu’un
extrait dans une annexe à ses écritures, précisant notamment que, « [b]ien
que le braconnage ait réellement commencé en 1996, le massacre le plus
important de la faune a eu lieu entre 1998 et 2000 », et que, « [s]elon des
sources commerciales fiables, une grande partie de l’ivoire ouvragé sur le
marché ougandais est acheminé en contrebande depuis l’Ituri ». La réserve
de faune à okapis étant située à 90 % en Ituri, l’Ouganda était tenu, à
l’époque des faits, de s’acquitter des devoirs lui incombant en tant que
puissance occupante (voir le paragraphe 79 ci-
dessus).
362. Dans ces conditions, la Cour considère que les informations données
dans les rapports d’organisations internationales sont suffisantes
pour lui permettre de conclure que des dommages considérables ont été
causés à la faune dans les régions où l’Ouganda était une puissance occupante.
En conséquence, la Cour conclut que l’Ouganda est tenu de réparer
les dommages qui se sont produits dans les parties de la réserve de
faune à okapis et du parc national des Virunga situées en Ituri, où il était
puissance occupante.
363. Bien que les preuves disponibles ne soient pas suffisantes pour lui
permettre de déterminer un nombre raisonnablement précis ou même
approximatif d’animaux tués pour lesquels l’Ouganda doit réparation, la
Cour est néanmoins convaincue, sur la base des rapports cités ci-
dessus
(voir le paragraphe 361), que l’Ouganda est responsable d’une quantité
importante de dommages à la faune dans la réserve de faune à okapis et
dans la partie septentrionale du parc national des Virunga, dans la mesure
où ces parcs sont situés en Ituri. La Cour adjugera dès lors une indemnisation
pour ce type de dommages dans le cadre d’une somme globale
allouée pour l’ensemble des dommages afférents aux ressources naturelles.
5. Conclusion
364. La Cour fait observer que les éléments versés au dossier et le rapport
d’expertise de M. Nest montrent qu’un volume important de ressources
naturelles a été pillé et exploité en RDC entre 1998 et 2003.
Concernant l’Ituri, l’Ouganda est tenu à réparation à raison de tous les
actes de cette nature. Pour ce qui est d’autres régions, un grand nombre
d’actes de pillage et d’exploitation des ressources naturelles lui est attribuable.
Cependant, ni le rapport de l’expert désigné par la Cour ni les
preuves produites par la RDC ou figurant dans les rapports de la commission
Porter, d’organismes de l’ONU et d’organisations non gouvernementales
ne suffisent à établir l’étendue précise du pillage et de
l’exploitation dont l’Ouganda est responsable. Dans son rapport d’expertise,
M. Nest fournit une estimation fiable sur le plan de la méthode et
convaincante au regard des preuves disponibles. Ce rapport est particulièrement
utile pour ce qui est de l’évaluation des différentes ressources
naturelles à l’étude (minerais, café et bois d’oeuvre). Cela étant, si le rapport
d’expertise de M. Nest et, s’agissant de la faune, les rapports d’orga-
armed activities (judgment) 126
117
Uganda included in an annex to its written pleadings, stating in particular
that “[a]lthough poaching began in earnest in 1996, the heaviest slaughter
of wildlife occurred between 1998 and 2000”, and that “[a]ccording to
reliable trade sources, much of the tooled ivory on the Ugandan market
is being smuggled from Ituri”. Since 90 per cent of the Okapi Wildlife
Reserve is located in Ituri, Uganda had an obligation at the relevant time
to fulfil its duties as an occupying Power (see paragraph 79 above).
362. Under these circumstances, the Court considers that the information
given in the reports by international organizations is sufficient for it
to conclude that significant damage to fauna occurred in the areas in
which Uganda was an occupying Power. The Court therefore concludes
that Uganda is liable to make reparation for damage occurring in those
parts of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Virunga National Park located in
Ituri, where Uganda was the occupying Power.
363. While the available evidence is not sufficient to determine a reasonably
precise or even an approximate number of animal deaths for
which Uganda owes reparation, the Court is nevertheless satisfied, on the
basis of the reports cited above (see paragraph 361), that Uganda is
responsible for a significant amount of damage to fauna in the Okapi
Wildlife Reserve and in the northern part of Virunga National Park, to
the extent that these parks are located in Ituri. On this basis the Court
will award compensation for this form of damage as part of a global sum
for all damage to natural resources.
5. Conclusion
364. The Court observes that the evidence presented to it and the
expert report by Mr. Nest demonstrate that a large quantity of natural
resources was looted, plundered and exploited in the DRC between 1998
and 2003. In respect of Ituri, Uganda is liable to make reparation for all
such acts. As to areas outside of Ituri, a significant amount of natural
resources looted, plundered and exploited is attributable to Uganda.
However, neither the report by the Court‑appointed expert nor the evidence
presented by the DRC or set out in reports by the Porter Commission,
United Nations bodies and non-governmental
organizations is
sufficient to prove the precise extent of the looting, plundering and exploitation
for which Uganda is liable. The expert report by Mr. Nest provides
a methodologically solid and persuasive estimate on the basis of the available
evidence. This expert report is particularly helpful regarding the
valuation of the different natural resources it covers (minerals, coffee and
timber). However, while the expert report by Mr. Nest, and, with respect
to fauna, the reports by specialized United Nations bodies, may offer the
127 activités armées (arrêt)
118
nismes spécialisés de l’ONU fournissent peut-être la meilleure estimation
possible de l’ampleur de l’exploitation des ressources naturelles dans les
circonstances de l’espèce, ils ne permettent pas à la Cour de déterminer de
manière suffisament précise l’étendue ou la valeur des dommages.
365. Comme elle l’a fait en ce qui concerne les dommages causés aux
personnes et aux biens, la Cour doit tenir compte des circonstances très
particulières de la présente affaire, lesquelles ont empêché la RDC et l’expert
de présenter des éléments de preuve ayant une plus forte valeur probante
(voir les paragraphes 120-126 ci-
dessus).
Elle rappelle qu’elle peut,
au vu desdites circonstances, adjuger une indemnisation sous la forme
d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les éléments
de preuve et compte tenu de considérations d’équité (voir le paragraphe
106 ci-
dessus).
366. Tenant compte de l’ensemble des éléments versés au dossier (voir
les paragraphes 260‑363 ci‑dessus, en particulier les paragraphes 298, 310,
322, 332, 344 et 363), en particulier des conclusions et des estimations
contenues dans le rapport de M. Nest, expert désigné par la Cour, et de
sa jurisprudence ainsi que des décisions d’autres organismes internationaux
(voir les paragraphes 69-126 ci‑dessus), la Cour adjugera une indemnisation
pour le pillage et l’exploitation des ressources naturelles sous la
forme d’une somme globale de 60 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis.
D. Dommage macroéconomique
367. Enfin, la RDC demande 5 714 000 775 dollars des Etats‑Unis à
raison d’un dommage macroéconomique.
368. Dans le dispositif de l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 2005, la Cour a dit
que « la République de l’Ouganda, en se livrant à des actions militaires à
l’encontre de la République démocratique du Congo …, a[vait] violé le
principe du non-recours
à la force dans les relations internationales et le
principe de non-intervention
» et que « la République de l’Ouganda a
l’obligation, envers la République démocratique du Congo, de réparer le
préjudice causé » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 280‑282, par. 345, points 1) et
5)). La Cour n’a toutefois pas fait expressément mention d’un dommage
macroéconomique.
* *
369. La RDC fait valoir que le recours illicite par l’Ouganda à la force
de grande ampleur a provoqué un ralentissement considérable de l’activité
économique en RDC constituant un manque à gagner qui appelle
une réparation intégrale. Elle invoque le principe selon lequel la réparation
doit, autant que possible, effacer toutes les conséquences de l’acte
illicite et rétablir l’état qui aurait vraisemblablement existé si ledit acte
n’avait pas été commis (Usine de Chorzów, fond, arrêt no 13, 1928,
C.P.J.I. série A no 17, p. 47). Elle soutient également, se référant aux
articles 31 et 36 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de l’Etat, que
armed activities (judgment) 127
118
best possible estimate of the scale of the exploitation of natural resources
under the circumstances, they do not permit the Court to reach a sufficiently
precise determination of the extent or the valuation of the damage.
365. As it did with respect to damage to persons and to property, the
Court must take account of the extraordinary circumstances of the present
case, which have restricted the ability of the DRC and of the expert to
present evidence with greater probative value (see paragraphs 120-126
above). The Court recalls that it may, under the exceptional circumstances
of the present case, award compensation in the form of a global
sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking
into account equitable considerations (see paragraph 106 above).
366. Taking into account all the available evidence (see paragraphs
260‑363 above, specifically 298, 310, 322, 332, 344 and 363), in
particular
the findings and estimates contained in the report by
the Court‑appointed expert Mr. Nest, as well as its jurisprudence and the
pronouncements of other international bodies (see paragraphs 69‑126
above), the Court will award compensation for the looting, plundering
and exploitation of natural resources in the form of global sum of
US$60,000,000.
D. Macroeconomic Damage
367. Finally, the DRC claims US$5,714,000,775 for macroeconomic
damage.
368. In the operative part of its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that
“Uganda, by engaging in military activities against the Democratic
Republic of the Congo . . . violated the principle of non‑use of force in
international relations and the principle of non‑intervention” and held
“that the Republic of Uganda is under obligation to make reparation to
the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the injury caused”
(I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 280‑282, para. 345, subparas. (1) and (5)). The
Court did not, however, specifically mention macroeconomic damage.
* *
369. The DRC submits that the unlawful use of large‑scale force by
Uganda caused a considerable slowdown in the economic activity of the
DRC, constituting a loss of revenue for which full compensation must be
paid. The DRC invokes the principle that reparation must, as far as possible,
wipe out all the consequences of the illegal act and re‑establish the
situation which would, in all probability, have existed if that act had not
been committed (Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, p. 47). The DRC also claims, referring to Articles
31 and 36 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, that compensa-
128 activités armées (arrêt)
119
l’indemnité devrait couvrir tout dommage susceptible d’évaluation financière,
y compris le manque à gagner dans la mesure où celui-
ci est établi.
Aussi la RDC estime‑t‑elle que les conséquences économiques générales
ne sont pas exclues des dommages indemnisables.
370. La RDC affirme que toute pratique des Etats ou toute jurisprudence
ayant, par le passé, rejeté des demandes en réparation relatives à un
dommage macroéconomique résultant d’une guerre ou d’un conflit armé
étaient fondées sur des dispositions spéciales propres à chaque cas, l’ensemble
de ces cas constituant des exceptions à la règle générale de la réparation
intégrale.
371. Selon la RDC, l’Ouganda a causé, en sus de préjudices plus spécifiques,
un préjudice économique général ouvrant droit à indemnisation.
La RDC soutient qu’il n’existe aucun risque de double indemnisation dès
lors qu’une indemnité est adjugée à raison d’un dommage macroéconomique
et une autre, pour les pertes subies par les particuliers. Elle fait
valoir à cet égard que, si un pays subit des dommages aux niveaux tant
macroéconomique que microéconomique, le premier niveau est lié au
manque à gagner, tandis que le second se rapporte aux biens existants des
entreprises et unités de production.
372. Pour étayer sa demande, la RDC a désigné deux experts de l’Université
de Kinshasa pour procéder à l’estimation du dommage macroéconomique
causé par la guerre de 1998 à 2003. Cette étude, réalisée en 2016
(ci‑après l’« étude de Kinshasa »), est fondée sur un modèle conçu par
deux économistes spécialisés dans la modélisation des effets de la guerre
sur la performance de l’économie des pays touchés. La RDC estime qu’un
dommage macroéconomique n’a rien de spéculatif puisque les effets d’une
guerre sur l’équilibre macroéconomique ainsi que sur la marche de l’économie
des Etats affectés et sur leurs performances en matière de croissance
sont mesurables, et qu’elle les a d’ailleurs mesurés selon des
méthodes éprouvées et en s’appuyant sur des données fiables. La RDC
affirme en outre que les données présentées indiquent que l’économie
congolaise était certes déjà sur le déclin en 1998, mais que ce déclin a été
précipité par la guerre et qu’une reprise économique a été amorcée dès la
fin de celle-
ci, ce qui montre que la guerre avait causé un préjudice
macroéconomique spécifique et identifiable.
373. D’après l’étude de Kinshasa, le dommage macroéconomique subi
par la RDC du fait de la guerre qui a fait rage de 1998 à 2003 se chiffre à
12 697 779 493,27 dollars des Etats‑Unis. Etant donné que, selon la RDC,
le préjudice résultant de la guerre n’a pas été causé uniquement par le
comportement internationalement illicite de l’Ouganda et qu’il est aussi la
conséquence des agissements d’autres Etats, la part qu’il convient d’en
imputer à l’Ouganda représenterait 45 % du montant total. En conséquence,
la somme réclamée par la RDC pour ce chef de dommages est de
5 714 000 775 dollars des Etats‑Unis.
*
armed activities (judgment) 128
119
tion should cover any financially assessable damage including loss of
profits in so far as it is established. Therefore, in the DRC’s view, general
economic consequences are not excluded from the compensable damage.
370. The DRC submits that any past State practice or jurisprudence
that rejected reparation for macroeconomic damage resulting from war
or armed conflict was based on special provisions peculiar to each case in
point and that all these cases were exceptions to the general rule of full
reparation.
371. According to the DRC, Uganda caused compensable general economic
injury, in addition to more specific harm. The DRC maintains that
there is no risk of double recovery if compensation for macroeconomic
damage is awarded together with compensation for loss suffered by individuals.
In this regard, the DRC argues that, if a country suffers on both
the macroeconomic and the microeconomic level, the former represents a
loss of profits, whereas the latter represents damage to the existing assets
of businesses or production units.
372. To substantiate its claim, the DRC commissioned two experts
from the University of Kinshasa to estimate the macroeconomic damage
caused by the 1998‑2003 war. This 2016 study (hereinafter the “Kinshasa
study”) is based on a model that was developed by two economists
who specialize in modelling the impact of war on the economic performance
of affected countries. The DRC maintains that there is nothing
speculative about macroeconomic damage, since the effects of war on the
macroeconomic balance of affected States, the progress of the economy
and its performance in terms of growth, are measurable and have indeed
been measured by the DRC using proven methods and reliable data. The
DRC further submits that the data it provided show that although the
Congolese economy was already declining in 1998, the downturn was precipitated
by the war and the economy began to recover when the war
ended, demonstrating that the war had caused specific and identifiable
macroeconomic harm.
373. According to the Kinshasa study, the macroeconomic damage
suffered by the DRC as a result of the 1998‑2003 war amounts to
US$12,697,779,493.27. Since, in the DRC’s submission, the harm resulting
from the war was not caused solely by Uganda’s internationally
wrongful conduct but was also the consequence of acts of other States,
Uganda’s share amounts to 45 per cent of the total. The sum claimed by
the DRC under this head of damage is thus US$5,714,000,775.
*
129 activités armées (arrêt)
120
374. L’Ouganda conteste pour plusieurs motifs la demande de la RDC
relative au dommage macroéconomique.
375. L’Ouganda soutient que la demande de la RDC n’entre pas dans
le champ de l’arrêt de 2005. Selon lui, la RDC doit rapporter la preuve du
« préjudice exact » qu’elle a subi du fait des « actions spécifiques » constituant
des violations du droit international dont la Cour a établi qu’elles
engageaient la responsabilité de l’Ouganda, ce que la RDC n’a pas fait
pour ce qui est du dommage macroéconomique.
376. L’Ouganda affirme en outre que le dommage macroéconomique
résultant d’un conflit armé n’ouvre pas droit à indemnisation en droit
international, comme le confirme, selon lui, le rejet uniforme de telles
demandes dans la pratique des Etats et dans la jurisprudence. Pour ce qui
est de la pratique étatique, il invoque le traité de Versailles et les régimes
de réparation unilatéraux ou conventionnels mis en place après la seconde
guerre mondiale, et tire argument de ce qu’aucun d’eux n’incluait l’obligation
de verser des réparations au titre des conséquences macroéconomiques
de la guerre. En ce qui concerne la jurisprudence, l’Ouganda cite les sentences
finales de la CREE sur les réclamations de dommages de l’Erythrée
et de l’Ethiopie, respectivement, pour alléguer, d’une part, que le droit
international n’impose pas l’obligation de compenser les « conséquences
économiques et sociales généralisées de la guerre » et, d’autre part, qu’aucun
tribunal n’a jamais « jugé qu’une situation généralisée de perturbation
et de déclin économiques liés à la guerre constitu[ait] un chef de dommages
indemnisable, pas même dans le cas de certains types de préjudices présentant
un lien relativement étroit avec un comportement illicite ».
377. L’Ouganda considère en outre que le dommage macroéconomique
n’ouvre pas droit à indemnisation en droit international car il
relève, par nature, de la spéculation. Il soutient en particulier que le lien
de causalité entre la violation par lui de l’interdiction de l’emploi de la
force et d’éventuelles pertes macroéconomiques n’est pas suffisamment
direct et qu’il est trop éloigné. L’Ouganda affirme que la demande de la
RDC illustre elle-même le caractère spéculatif de ce chef de dommages
puisqu’« une demande d’indemnisation ne saurait être justifiée au moyen
de probabilités, variables, méthodes statistiques et autres formules énigmatiques
».
378. De plus, l’Ouganda soutient que le concept de manque à gagner
n’englobe pas le dommage macroéconomique que la RDC invoque. Il fait
valoir à cet égard que le manque à gagner se rapporte à des biens productifs
de revenus et que l’économie d’une nation ne constitue pas un tel
bien. Selon l’Ouganda, la RDC est incapable de désigner le moindre bien
conçu pour générer des revenus qui aurait subi des dommages en conséquence
des faits internationalement illicites commis par lui.
379. L’Ouganda fait valoir en outre que le dommage macroéconomique
à raison duquel la RDC cherche à être indemnisée englobe des
dommages qui sont également allégués dans d’autres parties de ses écritures,
ce qui revient, pour elle, à réclamer une double réparation sous
couvert de dommage macroéconomique.
armed activities (judgment) 129
120
374. Uganda disputes the DRC’s claim for macroeconomic damage on
several grounds.
375. Uganda submits that the DRC’s claim is not covered by the
2005 Judgment. In Uganda’s view, the DRC must show an “exact injury”
resulting from “specific actions” that constitute violations of international
law for which the Court has established Uganda’s responsibility, which
the DRC has not done with respect to macroeconomic damage.
376. Uganda also maintains that macroeconomic damage resulting
from armed conflict is not compensable under international law. Uganda
argues that this is confirmed by the uniform rejection of such claims in
State practice and in jurisprudence. Regarding State practice, Uganda
refers to the Treaty of Versailles and the unilateral or conventional reparation
schemes after the Second World War, none of which included an
obligation to pay reparation for the macroeconomic impact of the war.
With regard to jurisprudence, Uganda cites the EECC final awards on
Ethiopia’s damage and on Eritrea’s damage, respectively, for the propositions
that international law imposes no responsibility to compensate for
the “generalized economic and social consequences of war”, and that past
tribunals have not “found generalized conditions of war‑related economic
disruption and decline to constitute compensable elements of damage,
even in the case of some types of injury bearing a relatively close connection
to illegal conduct”.
377. Uganda further considers that macroeconomic damage is not
subject
to compensation under international law because it is inherently
speculative. More specifically, Uganda claims that the causal nexus
between its violation of the prohibition of the use of force and any possible
macroeconomic loss is not sufficiently direct and is too remote.
Uganda asserts that the DRC’s claim itself illustrates the speculative
nature of this head of damage, as “no claim for compensation can be
justified by recourse to probabilities, variables, statistical methods and
cryptic formulas”.
378. In addition, Uganda submits that the concept of lost profits does
not encompass macroeconomic damage as claimed by the DRC. In this
regard, Uganda argues that lost profits relate to income‑producing assets.
Uganda contends that the economy of a nation does not constitute an
income‑producing asset. According to Uganda, the DRC fails to identify
any assets that were specifically designed to produce profits and were
affected by Uganda’s internationally wrongful acts.
379. Uganda also argues that the macroeconomic damage for which
the DRC seeks compensation includes damage that is also claimed elsewhere
in its written pleadings and that the DRC thus effectively seeks
double recovery under the guise of macroeconomic damage.
130 activités armées (arrêt)
121
380. L’Ouganda affirme enfin que, sous l’angle des sciences économiques,
la méthode employée par la RDC pour étayer sa demande est
bancale. Faisant observer que l’étude de Kinshasa était fondée essentiellement
sur un modèle conçu par deux économistes, l’Ouganda a demandé
à ces deux mêmes experts, M. Paul Collier et Mme Anke Hoeffler de l’Université
d’Oxford, de procéder à une évaluation (ci-
après l’« évaluation
Collier et Hoeffler ») exposant leurs vues critiques sur ladite étude. Outre
qu’elle relève plusieurs erreurs techniques et conteste les données utilisées,
l’évaluation Collier et Hoeffler souligne un « défaut général [qui] est plus
fondamental », à savoir que l’étude de Kinshasa postule une croissance
positive peu plausible du produit intérieur brut en RDC à compter de
1998 et méconnaît la flambée des cours mondiaux des matières premières
après 2001.
* *
381. Point n’est besoin pour la Cour de décider en l’espèce si un dommage
macroéconomique résultant d’une violation de l’interdiction de
l’emploi de la force, ou, plus généralement, tout dommage de ce type,
ouvre droit à indemnisation en droit international. Il lui suffit de relever
que la RDC n’a pas établi qu’il existait un lien de causalité suffisamment
direct et certain entre le fait internationalement illicite commis par l’Ouganda
et le dommage macroéconomique allégué. En tout état de cause, la
RDC n’a pas fourni de base permettant d’estimer, fût-ce approximativement,
le dommage macroéconomique éventuellement subi.
382. La Cour considère qu’il ne suffit pas, comme le prétend la RDC,
d’établir « une chaîne ininterrompue d’événements reliant le dommage au
comportement illicite de l’Ouganda ». La Cour doit en effet rechercher
« s’il existe un lien de causalité suffisamment direct et certain entre le fait
illicite … et le préjudice subi par le demandeur » (voir le paragraphe 93
ci-
dessus
; Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région
frontalière
(Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26, par. 32 ; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de
Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 332, par. 14 ; Application de la convention pour
la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 233‑234,
par. 462). Une indemnisation ne peut donc être adjugée qu’à raison des
pertes qui ne sont pas trop éloignées du recours illicite à la force (commentaire
de l’article 31 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de
l’Etat, ACDI, 2001, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 99, par. 10). Une violation
de l’interdiction de l’emploi de la force n’emporte pas l’obligation de
réparer tout ce qui survient par la suite, et le comportement de l’Ouganda
n’est pas la seule cause pertinente de tous les événements survenus durant
le conflit (voir CREE, Sentence finale, Réclamations de l’Ethiopie, décision
du 17 août 2009, RSA, vol. XXVI, p. 719, par. 282).
armed activities (judgment) 130
121
380. Finally, Uganda asserts that, from an economic science perspective,
the methodology by which the DRC substantiates its claim is flawed.
Noting that the Kinshasa study mainly relies on a model developed by
two economists, Uganda commissioned the same two experts, Mr. Paul
Collier and Ms Anke Hoeffler of the University of Oxford, to prepare an
assessment (hereinafter the “Collier and Hoeffler assessment”) in which
they set out their critical views of the Kinshasa study. Apart from alleging
several technical errors and raising issues with the data used in the Kinshasa
study, the Collier and Hoeffler assessment points to an “overall flaw
[that] is more fundamental” and consists in an implausible assumption of
positive growth in gross domestic product in the DRC after 1998 and in
disregarding the rise of global commodity prices from 2001 onwards.
* *
381. The Court does not need to decide, in the present proceedings,
whether a claim for macroeconomic damage resulting from a violation of
the prohibition of the use of force, or a claim for such damage more generally,
is compensable under international law. It is enough for the Court
to note that the DRC has not shown a sufficiently direct and certain
causal nexus between the internationally wrongful act of Uganda and any
alleged macroeconomic damage. In any event, the DRC has not provided
a basis for arriving at even a rough estimate of any possible macroeconomic
damage.
382. The Court considers that it is not sufficient, as the DRC claims, to
show “an uninterrupted chain of events linking the damage to Uganda’s
wrongful conduct”. Rather, the Court is required to determine “whether
there is a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the wrongful
act . . . and the injury suffered by the Applicant” (see paragraph 93 above;
Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa
Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I),
p. 26, para. 32; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I),
p. 332, para. 14; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and
Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 233‑234, para. 462).
Compensation can thus only be awarded for losses that are not too
remote from the unlawful use of force (commentary to Article 31 of the
ILC Articles on State Responsibility, YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two,
p. 93, para. 10). A violation of the prohibition of the use of force does not
give rise to an obligation to make reparation for all that comes afterwards,
and Uganda’s conduct is not the only relevant cause of all that
happened during the conflict (see EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages
Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 719,
para. 282).
131 activités armées (arrêt)
122
383. Le recours illicite à la force par l’Ouganda a fort bien pu avoir un
effet préjudiciable sur l’économie de la RDC. En la présente espèce,
cependant, la Cour doit déterminer si le dommage macroéconomique prétendument
subi par la RDC est étayé par les éléments de preuve, et si la
RDC a établi l’existence d’un lien de causalité suffisamment direct et certain
entre le comportement internationalement illicite de l’Ouganda, tel
que constaté par la Cour dans son arrêt de 2005, et ce chef de dommages.
L’étude de Kinshasa, sur laquelle se fonde la RDC, n’offre aucune certitude
quant à l’existence ou à l’ampleur de l’effet préjudiciable sur l’économie
allégué par la RDC. L’évaluation Collier et Hoeffler, dont l’analyse
est différente, jette de sérieux doutes sur le contenu de cette étude, du
moins en ce qui concerne l’étendue des dommages éventuels et les effets
potentiels de toute cause indépendante. La Cour relève en outre que la
méthode retenue dans l’étude de Kinshasa est fondée sur un modèle économétrique
destiné à dégager des tendances générales ou à confirmer certaines
hypothèses qui peuvent convenir à des fins scientifiques abstraites
ou des recommandations de politique générale. Elle n’est pas convaincue
que la méthode en question soit suffisamment fiable pour que des réparations
puissent être adjugées sur cette base dans le cadre d’une procédure
judiciaire.
384. La Cour conclut que la RDC n’a pas démontré qu’il existait un
lien de causalité suffisamment direct et certain entre les faits internationalement
illicites commis par l’Ouganda et un éventuel dommage macroéconomique.
En conséquence, elle ne peut adjuger à la RDC l’indemnisation
que celle-
ci réclame à raison des pertes qui découleraient de la perturbation
générale de l’économie liée au conflit (voir CREE, Sentence finale,
Réclamations de l’Ethiopie, décision du 17 août 2009, RSA, vol. XXVI,
p. 747, par. 395). La Cour rejette donc la demande de la RDC relative au
dommage macroéconomique.
IV. Satisfaction
385. La RDC fait valoir que, quel que soit le montant de l’indemnisation
adjugée par la Cour, cette forme de réparation ne suffit pas à remédier
complètement aux dommages causés à la RDC et à sa population.
Elle demande donc que l’Ouganda soit tenu de donner satisfaction de la
façon suivante : i) la conduite d’enquêtes et l’engagement de poursuites
pénales à l’encontre des officiers et des soldats des UPDF ; ii) le versement
d’une somme de 25 millions de dollars des Etats‑Unis en vue de la création
d’un fonds destiné à favoriser la réconciliation entre les Hema et les
Lendu en Ituri ; et iii) le versement d’une somme de 100 millions de dollars
des Etats-Unis en vue d’assurer la réparation du préjudice immatériel
subi par la RDC du fait de la guerre.
386. L’Ouganda estime, pour sa part, que la demande d’enquêtes et de
poursuites pénales de la RDC constitue une nouvelle mise en cause de sa
responsabilité qui n’avait pas été formulée au stade du fond. En outre, il
armed activities (judgment) 131
122
383. Uganda’s unlawful use of force may well have had a negative
effect on the economy of the DRC. In these proceedings, however, the
Court must determine whether any macroeconomic damage allegedly suffered
by the DRC is supported by the evidence, and whether the DRC
has established a sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus between the
internationally wrongful conduct of Uganda identified by the Court in its
2005 Judgment and this head of damage. The Kinshasa study on which
the DRC relies does not provide any certainty regarding the existence or
extent of the negative effect on the economy alleged by the DRC. The
countervailing Collier and Hoeffler assessment casts serious doubts on the
Kinshasa study, at least regarding the extent of any possible damage and
the potential effects of any independent causal factors. The Court also
notes that the methodology used in the Kinshasa study is based on an
econometric model that is designed to show general trends or verify certain
hypotheses that may suffice for abstract scientific purposes or policy
recommendations. The Court is not convinced that the methodology used
in the study is sufficiently reliable for an award of reparation in a judicial
proceeding.
384. The Court concludes that the DRC has not demonstrated that a
sufficiently direct and certain causal nexus exists between the internationally
wrongful acts of Uganda and any possible macroeconomic damage.
The Court therefore cannot award compensation to the DRC for losses
allegedly arising from the general disruption to the economy as a result of
the conflict (see EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision
of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 747, para. 395). The Court
thus rejects the claim of the DRC for macroeconomic damage.
IV. Satisfaction
385. The DRC argues that, regardless of the amount awarded by the
Court, compensation as a form of reparation is not sufficient to remedy
fully the damage caused to the DRC and its population. It therefore asks
that Uganda be required to give satisfaction through: (i) the criminal
investigation and prosecution of officers and soldiers of the UPDF;
(ii) the payment of US$25 million for the creation of a fund to promote
reconciliation between the Hema and the Lendu in Ituri; and (iii) the payment
of US$100 million for the non-material
harm suffered by the DRC
as a result of the war.
386. Uganda, for its part, is of the view that the DRC’s request for
criminal investigations and prosecutions is a new liability claim which
was not brought at the merits phase. Furthermore, it asserts that the
132 activités armées (arrêt)
123
fait valoir que la demande d’un versement de 125 millions de dollars des
Etats‑Unis concerne le même préjudice que celui déjà visé par les autres
demandes de la RDC et que, en tout état de cause, la satisfaction devrait
prendre la forme d’un montant purement symbolique.
* *
387. Avant d’examiner les trois formes de satisfaction demandées par la
RDC, la Cour rappelle qu’en général une déclaration de violation constitue,
en elle‑même, une satisfaction appropriée dans la plupart des cas
(Usines de pâte à papier sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argentine c. Uruguay),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), p. 106, par. 282, point 1) du dispositif ; Certaines
questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 245, par. 204 ; Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I),
p. 234, par. 463, et p. 239, par. 471, point 9) du dispositif ; Détroit de Corfou
(Royaume-Uni c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 35).
Cependant, la satisfaction peut prendre une tout autre forme en fonction
des circonstances de l’espèce et dans la mesure où l’indemnisation ne
parvient pas à effacer toutes les conséquences d’un fait internationalement
illicite.
388. Pour ce qui est de la première mesure demandée par la RDC, à
savoir l’engagement d’enquêtes et de poursuites pénales, la Cour rappelle
que, selon l’article 37 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de
l’Etat :
« 1. L’Etat responsable d’un fait internationalement illicite est tenu de
donner satisfaction pour le préjudice causé par ce fait dans la
mesure où il ne peut pas être réparé par la restitution ou l’indemnisation.
2. La satisfaction peut consister en une reconnaissance de la violation,
une expression de regrets, des excuses formelles ou toute
autre modalité appropriée. »
389. La Cour relève que les formes de satisfaction, énumérées au deuxième
paragraphe de cette disposition, ne sont pas exhaustives. En principe,
la satisfaction peut inclure des mesures telles qu’« une action
disciplinaire ou pénale contre les personnes dont le comportement est à
l’origine du fait internationalement illicite » (commentaire de l’article 37
des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de l’Etat, ACDI, 2001, vol. II,
deuxième partie, p. 114, par. 5).
390. La Cour rappelle que, dans son arrêt de 2005, elle a conclu que les
troupes ougandaises avaient commis de graves violations aux conventions
de Genève. Elle fait observer que, en vertu de l’article 146 de la quatrième
convention de Genève relative à la protection des populations civiles en
temps de guerre du 12 août 1949 et de l’article 85 du protocole additionnel
aux conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949 relatif à la protection des
armed activities (judgment) 132
123
claim for a payment of US$125 million concerns the same injury already
covered by the DRC’s other claims, and that, in any event, satisfaction
should take the form of a purely symbolic payment.
* *
387. Before examining the three forms of satisfaction sought by the
DRC, the Court recalls that, in general, a declaration of violation is, in
itself, appropriate satisfaction in most cases (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay
(Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 106,
para. 282 (1); Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters
(Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 245, para. 204;
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 234, para. 463, and p. 239,
para. 471 (9); Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 35). However, satisfaction can take an
entirely different form depending on the circumstances of the case, and in
so far as compensation does not wipe out all the consequences of an internationally
wrongful act.
388. As regards the first measure sought by the DRC, namely the conduct
of criminal investigations and prosecutions, the Court recalls that
under Article 37 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility:
“1. The State responsible for an internationally wrongful act is under
an obligation to give satisfaction for the injury caused by that
act insofar as it cannot be made good by restitution or compensation.
2. Satisfaction may consist in an acknowledgement of the breach, an
expression of regret, a formal apology or another appropriate
modality.”
389. The Court observes that the forms of satisfaction listed in the second
paragraph of this provision are not exhaustive. In principle, satisfaction
can include measures such as “disciplinary or penal action against
the individuals whose conduct caused the internationally wrongful act”
(commentary to Article 37 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility,
YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 106, para. 5).
390. The Court recalls that, in its 2005 Judgment, it found that Ugandan
troops had committed grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions.
The Court observes that, pursuant to Article 146 of the Fourth Geneva
Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War
of 12 August 1949 and to Article 85 of the Protocol Additional to the
Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of
133 activités armées (arrêt)
124
victimes des conflits armés internationaux (protocole I), l’Ouganda avait
l’obligation d’enquêter, de poursuivre et de réprimer les personnes responsables
de telles violations. Il en découle que la Cour n’a nul besoin
d’édicter de mesure spécifique additionnelle de satisfaction, relative à l’engagement
d’enquêtes ou de poursuites pénales. Le défendeur est tenu de
le faire, en vertu des obligations qui pèsent sur lui.
391. En ce qui concerne la deuxième mesure de satisfaction demandée
par la RDC, soit le versement d’une somme de 25 millions de dollars des
Etats‑Unis pour la création d’un fonds de réconciliation entre les Hema et
les Lendu en Ituri, la Cour rappelle que, dans son arrêt de 2005, elle a
considéré que les UPDF avaient « incité à des conflits ethniques et qu’elles
n’[avaie]nt pris aucune mesure pour prévenir de tels conflits dans le district
de l’Ituri » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 240, par. 209). Cependant, en l’espèce,
les dommages matériels causés par les conflits ethniques en Ituri
sont déjà visés par l’indemnisation accordée pour les dommages causés
aux personnes et aux biens. La Cour invite néanmoins les Parties à
coopérer
de bonne foi en vue d’établir différentes méthodes et différents
moyens pour promouvoir la réconciliation entre les groupes ethniques
hema et lendu en Ituri et une paix durable entre eux.
392. Enfin, la Cour ne peut retenir la troisième mesure de satisfaction
demandée par la RDC, soit le versement de 100 millions de dollars des
Etats‑Unis au titre du dommage immatériel. L’octroi d’une satisfaction
pour le dommage immatériel à la RDC, dans de telles circonstances, n’est
pas fondé, étant donné l’objet de la réparation en droit international et la
pratique internationale en la matière. La CREE a rejeté la demande de
l’Ethiopie pour dommage moral subi par les Ethiopiens et par l’Etat
lui‑même en raison de l’usage illégal de la force par l’Erythrée (CREE,
Sentence finale, Réclamations de dommages de l’Ethiopie, décision du
17 août 2009, RSA, vol. XXVI, p. 662, par. 54‑55, et p. 664, par. 61).
Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, la Cour considère que le dommage
immatériel pour lequel la RDC demande la satisfaction est inclus dans la
somme globale allouée par la Cour pour différents types de dommages.
V. Autres demandes
393. La Cour en vient maintenant aux autres demandes formulées
dans les conclusions finales de la RDC, tendant à ce qu’elle prescrive à
l’Ouganda de rembourser les frais de procédure que celle‑ci a engagés
dans le cadre de la présente espèce, adjuge des intérêts compensatoires et
moratoires, et reste saisie de l’affaire jusqu’à ce que l’Ouganda ait intégralement
acquitté les réparations et indemnités mises à sa charge.
A. Frais de procédure
394. Dans ses conclusions finales, la RDC prie la Cour de dire et juger
que les frais de procédure qu’elle a engagés dans la présente affaire doivent
armed activities (judgment) 133
124
Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), Uganda has a duty
to investigate, prosecute and punish those responsible for the commission
of such violations. There is no need for the Court to order any additional
specific measure of satisfaction relating to the conduct of criminal investigations
or prosecutions. The Respondent is required to investigate and
prosecute by virtue of the obligations incumbent on it.
391. As regards the second measure of satisfaction sought by the DRC,
namely the payment of US$25 million for the creation of a fund to promote
reconciliation between the Hema and the Lendu in Ituri, the Court
recalls that in its 2005 Judgment it considered that the UPDF had “incited
ethnic conflicts and t[aken] no action to prevent such conflicts in Ituri
district” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 240, para. 209). In this case, however, the
material damage caused by the ethnic conflicts in Ituri is already covered
by the compensation awarded for damage to persons and to property.
The Court nevertheless invites the Parties to co‑operate in good faith to
establish different methods and means of promoting reconciliation
between the Hema and Lendu ethnic groups in Ituri and ensure lasting
peace between them.
392. Lastly, the Court cannot uphold the third measure of satisfaction
sought by the DRC, namely the payment of US$100 million for non-material
harm. There is no basis for granting satisfaction for non-material
harm to the DRC in such circumstances, given the subject-matter
of reparation
in international law and international practice in this regard. The
EECC rejected Ethiopia’s claim for moral damage suffered by Ethiopians
and by the State itself on account of Eritrea’s illegal use of force (EECC,
Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009,
RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 662, paras. 54-55, and p. 664, para. 61). In the circumstances
of the case, the Court considers that the non-material
harm
for which the DRC seeks satisfaction is included in the global sums
awarded by the Court for various heads of damage.
V. Other Requests
393. The Court now turns to the other requests made by the DRC in
its final submissions, namely that the Court order Uganda to reimburse
the DRC’s costs incurred during the proceedings, that the Court grant
pre‑judgment and post‑judgment interest, and that the Court remain
seised of the case until Uganda has fully made the reparations and paid
compensation as ordered by it.
A. Costs
394. The DRC in its final submissions requests the Court to order that
the costs it incurred in the present case be reimbursed by Uganda. It
134 activités armées (arrêt)
125
être remboursés par l’Ouganda. Elle invoque, à l’appui de cette demande,
l’existence de circonstances spéciales, en particulier la gravité des violations
du droit international dont elle et sa population ont été victimes,
ainsi que l’ampleur catastrophique des dommages qui en ont résulté. Elle
invoque également la tâche colossale qu’ont représentée pour elle la détermination
et l’évaluation de ces dommages, affirmant que cela a fait peser
sur des finances publiques déjà très dégradées une charge supplémentaire
qu’elle n’aurait pas eu à assumer si les forces armées ougandaises n’avaient
pas envahi et occupé durant plusieurs années de vastes portions de son
territoire. Ces circonstances justifient pleinement, de son point de vue,
qu’il soit fait exception, dans la présente instance, à la règle générale,
énoncée à l’article 64 du Statut de la Cour, selon laquelle chaque partie
supporte ses frais de procédure.
395. L’Ouganda allègue pour sa part que faire droit à la demande de
remboursement des frais de procédure présentée par la RDC serait
contraire au principe énoncé à l’article 64 du Statut de la Cour ainsi qu’à
la pratique de celle-
ci et de sa devancière, ni l’une ni l’autre n’ayant jamais
prononcé de condamnation aux dépens. Il avance que la Cour ne pourrait
envisager de déroger audit principe qu’en cas de grave abus de procédure
de la part de l’une des parties, hypothèse qui, selon lui, ne trouve pas à
s’appliquer en la présente espèce. Il estime qu’il était pleinement fondé à
s’opposer aux demandes de la RDC, et qu’il serait en conséquence
injustifié
de lui imposer de prendre en charge les frais de procédure
engagés
par celle-
ci. Dans ses conclusions finales, l’Ouganda prie la
Cour de dire et juger que chacune des Parties doit supporter ses frais de
procédure.
* *
396. L’article 64 du Statut de la Cour dispose que, « [s]’il n’en est autrement
décidé par la Cour, chaque partie supporte ses frais de procédure ».
Compte tenu des circonstances de la présente affaire, et notamment du
fait que l’Ouganda a obtenu gain de cause s’agissant de l’une de ses
demandes reconventionnelles contre la RDC et qu’il a renoncé à sa
demande d’indemnisation de ce chef, la Cour ne voit pas de raison suffisante
qui justifierait de déroger, dans la présente instance, à la règle générale
qui trouve son expression à l’article 64 du Statut, et décide donc que
chaque Partie supportera ses frais de procédure.
B. Intérêts compensatoires et moratoires
397. Dans ses conclusions finales, la RDC prie la Cour de prescrire à
l’Ouganda de verser des intérêts compensatoires et des intérêts moratoires.
S’agissant des premiers, elle fait observer que, selon le paragraphe 1
de l’article 38 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de l’Etat, « [d]es
intérêts sur toute somme principale due … sont payables dans la mesure
nécessaire pour assurer la réparation intégrale ». Elle affirme que, au
armed activities (judgment) 134
125
argues that there are special circumstances for doing so, referring in particular
to the gravity of the violations of international law from which the
DRC and its people suffered, as well as the catastrophic scale of the damage
that resulted. The DRC submits that it has faced an enormous task in
identifying and assessing that damage, which has placed an additional
burden on already impoverished public finances, a burden that the DRC
would not have had to bear if large areas of its territory had not been
invaded and occupied by the Ugandan armed forces for a number of
years. In the DRC’s view, those circumstances fully justify making an
exception, in the present case, to the general rule set forth in Article 64 of
the Statute of the Court that each party bear its own costs.
395. Uganda, for its part, argues that granting the DRC’s request for
costs would run counter to the presumption set forth in Article 64 of the
Court’s Statute, and that it would be contrary to the practice of the Court
and its predecessor, neither having ever ordered one party to pay the
costs of the other. Uganda contends that only if the Court were faced
with a serious abuse of process by a party might there be a possibility of
departing from the principle; in its view, such circumstances are not met
in the present case. Uganda submits that it was fully justified in resisting
the DRC’s claims and that there is therefore no basis for ordering it to
pay the DRC’s costs. In its final submissions, Uganda requests that the
Court declare that each Party should bear its own costs.
* *
396. Article 64 of the Statute provides that “[u]nless otherwise decided
by the Court, each party shall bear its own costs”. Taking into account
the circumstances of this case, including the fact that Uganda prevailed
on one of its counter-claims
against the DRC and subsequently waived its
own claim for compensation, the Court sees no sufficient reason that
would justify departing, in the present case, from the general rule set
forth in Article 64 of the Statute. Accordingly, each Party shall bear its
own costs.
B. Pre-Judgment
and Post-Judgment
Interest
397. The DRC in its final submissions requests the Court to order
Uganda to pay pre‑judgment interest and post‑judgment interest. With
respect to pre‑judgment interest, the DRC observes that, according to
Article 38, paragraph 1, of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility,
“[
i]nterest on any principal sum due . . . shall be payable when necessary
in order to ensure full reparation”. The DRC contends that, in light of
135 activités armées (arrêt)
126
regard du principe de la réparation intégrale et compte tenu des effets
du passage du temps, il y a lieu d’adjuger des intérêts compensatoires en
la présente espèce. La RDC a, dans ses écritures, prié la Cour de fixer à
6 % le taux des intérêts compensatoires dus, avant de proposer, à l’audience,
un taux de 4 %, applicable à compter du dépôt du mémoire sur la
question des réparations, pour les chefs de dommages autres que ceux
pour lesquels le montant de l’indemnisation allouée par la Cour selon
une évaluation globale tiendrait déjà compte des effets du passage du
temps.
398. La RDC demande également que des intérêts moratoires, au taux
de 6 %, courent sur la somme principale octroyée par la Cour, dans
l’hypothèse
où l’Ouganda n’aurait pas acquitté celle‑ci « à la date du
jugement
».
*
399. L’Ouganda avance que, dans les circonstances de l’espèce, il ne
serait conforme ni à la pratique de la Cour ni aux règles de droit international
applicables à l’indemnisation interétatique d’ordonner le paiement
d’intérêts compensatoires. A cet égard, il fait valoir que les intérêts
compensatoires ne s’appliquent que lorsque la Cour conclut qu’une
somme déjà déterminée était due au demandeur à une certaine date
échue, et dans la mesure qui est nécessaire pour assurer la réparation
intégrale.
Or, selon lui, de telles circonstances n’existent pas dans la présente
affaire. L’Ouganda affirme que, de manière générale, la RDC
cherche à obtenir des indemnités calculées sur la base d’une estimation
actualisée, et que rien ne justifie d’assortir cette somme d’intérêts compensatoires.
400. L’Ouganda estime que, dans les circonstances de l’espèce, la RDC
ne peut prétendre qu’à des intérêts moratoires. A cet égard, il admet que
la Cour, si elle devait lui ordonner d’indemniser la RDC, pourrait lui
prescrire, en cas de défaut de versement des indemnités dans un délai raisonnable,
de payer des intérêts sur la somme due, courant jusqu’à ce que
celle-
ci soit acquittée. Il précise toutefois que ce qui constitue un « délai
raisonnable » aux fins du versement desdites indemnités doit être apprécié
au regard de la somme adjugée par la Cour. Au vu des conditions prévalant
actuellement sur le marché, il prie la Cour de fixer un taux annuel ne
dépassant pas 3 %.
* *
401. En ce qui concerne les intérêts compensatoires demandés par la
RDC, la Cour fait observer que, selon la pratique des juridictions internationales,
de tels intérêts peuvent être alloués s’ils sont nécessaires pour
assurer la réparation intégrale du préjudice causé par un fait internationalement
illicite ; ils ne sont toutefois pas une forme autonome de réparation
et ne sont pas non plus nécessairement présents dans le contexte de
armed activities (judgment) 135
126
the principle of full reparation and taking into account the passage of
time, pre‑judgment interest is appropriate in the present case. The
DRC in its written pleadings requested the Court to fix the rate of the prejudgment
interest at 6 per cent. At the hearings, it proposed a rate of
4 per cent, payable from the filing of the Memorial on Reparation, due on
heads of claim other than those for which the amount of compensation
awarded by the Court, based on an overall assessment, already takes into
account the passage of time.
398. The DRC also requests that post‑judgment interest, at a rate of
6 per cent, accrue on the principal sum awarded by the Court, should
Uganda fail to pay it “on the date of the judgment”.
*
399. Uganda argues that ordering pre‑judgment interest in the circumstances
of the case would not be consistent with the practice of the Court
or the rules applicable to inter‑State compensation under international
law. In this regard, it submits that pre‑judgment interest would apply
only in circumstances where the Court determines that a fixed sum was
due to the applicant as of a specified date in the past, and to the extent
that is necessary to ensure full reparation. Uganda argues, however, that
no such circumstances exist in the present case. Rather, it asserts that the
DRC generally seeks compensation based on a present‑day valuation and
that there is no basis for supplementing that valuation with compensatory
interest.
400. Uganda considers that in the circumstances of the case, the DRC
is only entitled to post‑judgment interest. In this regard, it accepts that,
should the Court order Uganda to pay compensation to the DRC, it
could order that, if such compensation is not paid within a reasonable
period of time, interest would accrue on the amount owed until the date
of payment. However, Uganda argues that what constitutes a “reasonable
period of time” for such payment must be assessed in light of the
amount established by the Court. Given contemporary market conditions,
it urges the Court to set such interest at an annual rate no higher
than 3 per cent.
* *
401. With respect to the DRC’s claim for pre‑judgment interest, the
Court observes that, in the practice of international courts and tribunals,
while pre‑judgment interest may be awarded if full reparation for injury
caused by an internationally wrongful act so requires, interest is not an
autonomous form of reparation, nor is it a necessary part of compensation
in every case (see Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the
136 activités armées (arrêt)
127
l’indemnisation
(voir Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la
région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 58, par. 151). La Cour relève que, pour déterminer
la somme due au titre de chaque chef de dommages, elle a tenu
compte du passage du temps (voir ibid., par. 152). Elle fait observer à cet
égard que la RDC a elle-même précisé, dans ses conclusions finales,
qu’elle ne réclamait pas d’intérêts compensatoires à raison des dommages
« pour lesquels le montant des indemnités allouées par la Cour selon une
évaluation globale tiendrait déjà compte des effets du passage du temps ».
La Cour estime en conséquence qu’il n’y a pas lieu, dans les circonstances
de l’espèce, d’adjuger des intérêts compensatoires.
402. Pour ce qui est des intérêts moratoires réclamés par la RDC,
la Cour rappelle qu’elle a assorti de tels intérêts les indemnités qu’elle a
allouées dans de précédentes affaires, après avoir constaté que « l’octroi
d’intérêts moratoires [étai]t conforme à la pratique d’autres juridictions
internationales » (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée
c. République
démocratique du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2012 (I), p. 343, par. 56 ; voir également Certaines activités
menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 58, par. 154-155).
La Cour s’attend à ce que le paiement prescrit soit effectué en temps
voulu et n’a aucune raison de présumer que l’Ouganda n’agira pas ainsi.
Toutefois, conformément à sa pratique, la Cour décide que, en cas de
retard, des intérêts moratoires seront dus. Leur taux annuel sera de 6 % et
ils courront sur toute somme due et non acquittée (voir le paragraphe 406
ci-
dessous).
C. Demande tendant à ce que la Cour reste saisie de l’affaire
403. Dans ses conclusions finales, la RDC prie en outre la Cour de
« constater que le présent différend ne sera totalement et définitivement
réglé que lorsque l’Ouganda se sera effectivement acquitté des réparations
et indemnités [qu’elle aura] prononcées », étant entendu que, « [d]ans
[cette] attente, [elle] restera saisie de la présente affaire ».
* *
404. La Cour fait observer que, par cette demande, la RDC la prie, en
substance, de superviser l’exécution de son arrêt. Elle relève à cet égard
qu’elle n’a, dans aucun des arrêts relatifs à l’indemnisation qu’elle a rendus
jusqu’à présent, estimé nécessaire de rester saisie de l’affaire jusqu’au
paiement intégral des sommes dues. Elle considère en outre que l’octroi
d’intérêts moratoires répond aux préoccupations de la RDC concernant
le respect en temps voulu, par le défendeur, des obligations de paiement
mises à sa charge par le présent arrêt. A la lumière de ce qui précède, il
n’y a pas lieu que la Cour reste saisie de l’affaire et la demande de la RDC
doit donc être rejetée.
armed activities (judgment) 136
127
Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 58, para. 151). The Court notes that in determining
the amount to be awarded for each head of damage, it has taken
into account the passage of time (cf. ibid., para. 152). In this regard, the
Court observes that the DRC itself has stated in its final submissions that
it is not requesting pre‑judgment interest in respect of damage for which
“the amount of compensation awarded by the Court, based on an overall
assessment, already takes account of the passage of time”. The Court
considers that there is thus no need to award pre‑judgment interest in the
circumstances of the case.
402. With regard to the DRC’s claim for post‑judgment interest, the
Court recalls that it has granted such interest in past cases in which it has
awarded compensation, having observed that “the award of post‑judgment
interest is consistent with the practice of other international courts
and tribunals” (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I),
p. 343, para. 56; see also Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in
the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 58, paras. 154‑155). The Court expects timely
payment and has no reason to assume that Uganda will not act accordingly.
Nevertheless, consistent with its practice, the Court decides that,
should payment be delayed, post‑judgment interest shall be paid. It will
accrue at an annual rate of 6 per cent on any overdue amount (see paragraph
406 below).
C. Request that the Court Remain Seised of the Case
403. In its final submissions, the DRC also requests that the Court
“declare that the present dispute will not be fully and finally resolved
until Uganda has actually paid the reparations and compensation ordered
by the Court” and that “[u]ntil that time, the Court will remain seised of
the present case”.
* *
404. The Court observes that the DRC, by its request, is essentially
asking the Court to supervise the implementation of its Judgment. In this
regard, the Court notes that in none of its previous judgments on compensation
has it considered it necessary to remain seised of the case until
a final payment was received. The Court moreover considers that the
award of post‑judgment interest addresses the DRC’s concerns regarding
timely compliance by the Respondent with the payment obligations set
out in the present Judgment. In light of the above, there is no reason for
the Court to remain seised of the case and the request of the DRC must
therefore be rejected.
137 activités armées (arrêt)
128
VI. Total des indemnités
405. Le montant des indemnités octroyées à la RDC s’élève à un total
de 325 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis. Cette somme globale comprend
225 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les dommages causés aux personnes,
40 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les dommages causés aux
biens et 60 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les dommages afférents
aux ressources naturelles.
406. La somme allouée devra être intégralement acquittée par versements
annuels de 65 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis, dus le 1er septembre
de chaque année, entre 2022 et 2026. La Cour décide que, en cas de retard,
des intérêts moratoires, au taux annuel de 6 %, courront sur toute somme
due et non acquittée, à compter du jour suivant celui où celle-
ci aurait dû
être réglée.
407. La Cour est convaincue que les indemnités accordées et les modalités
de leur versement sont compatibles avec la capacité de paiement de
l’Ouganda. Elle n’a donc pas à examiner la question de savoir si la détermination
du montant de l’indemnisation devrait prendre en compte le
fardeau financier imposé à l’Etat responsable, eu égard à sa situation économique
(voir le paragraphe 110 ci‑dessus).
408. La Cour observe que la réparation accordée à la RDC à raison des
dommages aux personnes et aux biens reflète le préjudice subi, individuellement
et collectivement, du fait du manquement de l’Ouganda à ses obligations
internationales. A cet égard, elle tient pleinement compte et se félicite
de l’engagement pris au cours de la procédure orale par l’agent de la RDC
au sujet du fonds établi par son gouvernement, à savoir que les indemnités
dues par l’Ouganda seront réparties de manière équitable et effective entre
les victimes du préjudice, sous la supervision d’organes dont les membres
incluent des représentants des victimes et de la société civile et avec le concours
d’experts internationaux. Aux fins de la répartition des indemnités, les administrateurs
du fonds sont encouragés à envisager également la possibilité
d’adopter des mesures bénéficiant à l’ensemble des communautés touchées.
* * *
409. Par ces motifs,
La Cour,
1) Fixe aux montants suivants les indemnités que la République de
l’Ouganda est tenue de verser à la République démocratique du Congo à
raison des dommages causés par les violations d’obligations internationales
de son fait, telles que constatées par la Cour dans son arrêt du
19 décembre 2005 :
a) Par douze voix contre deux,
225 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les dommages causés aux personnes
;
armed activities (judgment) 137
128
VI. Total Sum Awarded
405. The total amount of compensation awarded to the DRC is
US$325,000,000. This global sum includes US$225,000,000 for damage to
persons, US$40,000,000 for damage to property, and US$60,000,000 for
damage related to natural resources.
406. The total sum is to be paid in annual instalments of US$65,000,000,
due on 1 September of each year, from 2022 to 2026. The Court decides
that, should payment be delayed, post‑judgment interest at an annual rate
of 6 per cent on each instalment will accrue on any overdue amount from
the day which follows the day on which the instalment was due.
407. The Court is satisfied that the total sum awarded, and the terms
of payment, remain within the capacity of Uganda to pay. Therefore, the
Court does not need to consider the question whether, in determining the
amount of compensation, account should be taken of the financial burden
imposed on the responsible State, given its economic condition (see
paragraph 110 above).
408. The Court notes that the reparation awarded to the DRC for damage
to persons and to property reflects the harm suffered by individuals and
communities as a result of Uganda’s breach of its international obligations.
In this regard, the Court takes full cognizance of, and welcomes, the undertaking
given by the Agent of the DRC during the oral proceedings regarding
the fund that has been established by the Government of the DRC,
according to which the compensation to be paid by Uganda will be fairly
and effectively distributed to victims of the harm, under the supervision of
organs whose members include representatives of victims and civil society
and whose operation is supported by international experts. In distributing
the sums awarded, the fund is encouraged to consider also the possibility of
adopting measures for the benefit of the affected communities as a whole.
* * *
409. For these reasons,
The Court,
(1) Fixes the following amounts for the compensation due from the
Republic of Uganda to the Democratic Republic of the Congo for
the damage caused by the violations of international obligations by the
Republic of Uganda, as found by the Court in its Judgment of 19 December
2005:
(a) By twelve votes to two,
US$225,000,000 for damage to persons;
138 activités armées (arrêt)
129
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson,
Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ;
contre : M. Salam, juge ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
b) Par douze voix contre deux,
40 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les dommages causés aux biens ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson,
Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ;
contre : M. Salam, juge ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
c) A l’unanimité,
60 000 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis pour les dommages afférents aux ressources
naturelles ;
2) Par douze voix contre deux,
Dit que le montant intégral dû conformément au point 1 ci-dessus
devra être acquitté en cinq versements annuels de 65 000 000 dollars des
Etats‑Unis, dont le premier est dû le 1er septembre 2022 ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Abraham,
Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson,
Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ;
contre : M. Tomka, juge ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
3) A l’unanimité,
Dit que, en cas de retard, des intérêts moratoires, au taux annuel de
6 %, courront sur toute somme due et non acquittée, à compter du jour
suivant celui où celle-
ci aurait dû être réglée ;
4) Par douze voix contre deux,
Rejette la demande de la République démocratique du Congo tendant
à ce que les frais de procédure que celle-
ci a engagés dans la présente
affaire soient supportés par la République de l’Ouganda ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Abraham,
Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson,
Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ;
contre : M. Tomka, juge ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
5) A l’unanimité,
Rejette le surplus des conclusions de la République démocratique du
Congo.
Fait en français et en anglais, le texte français faisant foi, au Palais de
la Paix, à La Haye, le neuf février deux mille vingt-deux, en trois exemplaires,
dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres
armed activities (judgment) 138
129
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice‑President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa,
Nolte;
against: Judge Salam; Judge ad hoc Daudet;
(b) By twelve votes to two,
US$40,000,000 for damage to property;
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice‑President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa,
Nolte;
against: Judge Salam; Judge ad hoc Daudet;
(c) Unanimously,
US$60,000,000 for damage related to natural resources;
(2) By twelve votes to two,
Decides that the total amount due under point 1 above shall be paid in
five annual instalments of US$65,000,000 starting on 1 September 2022;
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice‑President Gevorgian; Judges Abraham,
Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa,
Nolte;
against: Judge Tomka; Judge ad hoc Daudet;
(3) Unanimously,
Decides that, should payment be delayed, post‑judgment interest of
6 per cent will accrue on any overdue amount as from the day which follows
the day on which the instalment was due;
(4) By twelve votes to two,
Rejects the request of the Democratic Republic of the Congo that the
costs it incurred in the present case be borne by the Republic of Uganda;
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice‑President Gevorgian; Judges Abraham,
Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa,
Nolte;
against: Judge Tomka; Judge ad hoc Daudet;
(5) Unanimously,
Rejects all other submissions made by the Democratic Republic of the
Congo.
Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this ninth day of February, two thousand
and twenty-two, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives
139 activités armées (arrêt)
130
seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la République
démocratique du Congo et au Gouvernement de la République de l’Ouganda.
La présidente,
(Signé) Joan E. Donoghue.
Le greffier,
(Signé) Philippe Gautier.
M. le juge Tomka joint une déclaration à l’arrêt ; M. le juge Yusuf joint
à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle ; M. le juge Robinson joint à
l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle ; M. le juge Salam joint une
déclaration à l’arrêt ; M. le juge Iwasawa joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son
opinion individuelle ; M. le juge ad hoc Daudet joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de
son opinion dissidente.
(Paraphé) J.E.D.
(Paraphé) Ph.G.
armed activities (judgment) 139
130
of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and the Government of the Republic of
Uganda, respectively.
(Signed) Joan E. Donoghue,
President.
(Signed) Philippe Gautier,
Registrar.
Judge Tomka appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court;
Judge Yusuf appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court;
Judge Robinson appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the
Court; Judge Salam appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court;
Judge Iwasawa appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the
Court; Judge ad hoc Daudet appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment
of the Court.
(Initialled) J.E.D.
(Initialled) Ph.G.

ICJ document subtitle

Reparations

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 9 February 2022

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