Judgment of 24 May 1980

Document Number
064-19800524-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

COUR INTERNATIONALEDE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS
ET ORDONNANCES

INTERNATIONALCOURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS
AND ORDERS INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASE CONOERNING UNITED STATES
DIPLOMATE AND CONSULAR STAFF

IN TEHRAN
(UNITED STATES OF AMERICvIRAN)

JUDGMENT OF24MAY 1980

COUR INTERNATIONDEJUSTICE

iRECUEILDES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE RELATIVE AU PERSONNEL

DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE
DES ÉTATS-UNIS À TÉHÉRAN

(ÉTATS-UNIS D'AMÉRIQUE c. IRAN)

.ARRÊTDU 24MAI1980 Official citati:n

United States Diplomatic andConsular Staffin Tehran,
Judgment, 1.C.J. Report1980,p. 3.

Mode officiel de citat:on

Personneldiplomatiqueet consulairedes Etats-UàiTéhéran,
arrêt,CZ.J .ecueil1980,p. 3.

es n u 45
No de vente : 24 MAY 1980

JUDGMENT

CASE C0NCE:RNINGUNITED STATESDIPLOMATIC
AND CONSULAR STAFFIN TEHRAN

(UNITED STATES OFAMERICA v.IRAN)

AFFAIRE RELATIVEAU PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE

ET CONSULAIRE DESÉTATS-UNIS À TÉHÉRAN
(ÉTA'TS-UNISD'AMÉRIQUE C.IRAN)

24 MAI 1980

ARRET INTERNATIONALCOURT OFJUSTICE

1980 YEAR 1980
24 May
GeneralList 24 May 1980
No. 64

CASECONCERNING UNITED STATES

DIPLOMATICAND CONSULAR STAFF

IN TEHRAN

(UNITED STATESOF AMERICA v.IRAN)

Article 53 of the Statu-e Proof of Facts- Admissibility of Proceeding-
Existence of widerpoliticaldispute nobarto legalproceedi-gSecurity Council
proceedingsno restriction onfunctioningof the Cou-tFactfinding commission
established bySecretaryGeneral.
JurisdictionoftheCourt- OptionalProtocolsto ViennaConventionsof1961and
1963 on Diplornaticand ConsularRelations - 1955 Treav of Amity, Economic
Relations andConsularRights (USA/ Iran)- Provisionfor recoursetoCourtunless

parties agreeto "settlementbysome otherpacificmeans- Right tofile unilateral
Application- Whethercounter-measuresa bar to invoking Treatyof Amity.

State responsibility for violationsof Vienna Conventionsof 1961 and 1963 on
DiplornaticandConsularRelations- Action bypersonsnot acting onbehalfofState
- Non-imputabilitythereoftoState- Breachby State ofobligation ofprotect-on
Subsequent decisionto maintain situation so createdon behalf of S-aUseof
situation aseans of coercion.

Questionof special circumstancesaspossiblejustificationof conductof State
Remediesprovidedfor by diplomatielawfor abuses.
Cumulative effect of successive breachesof internationalobliga-ioFunda-
mental characterof internationaldiplomaticand consular law.

JUDGMENT

Present :President Sir HumphreyWALDOC KVice-PresidentELIAS ; Judges
FORSTERG , ROS, LACHS,MOROZOV N,AGENDRA SINGH,RUDA,

MOSLER, TARAZIO , DA,AGO,EL-ERIANS,ETTE-CAMARB AA,XTE;R
Registrar AQUARONE. In the case concerning United States Diplornatic and Consular Staff in Teh-
ran,

between

the United States of America,
represented by

The Honorable Roberts B. Owen, Legal Adviser, Department of State,
as Agent,

H.E. Mrs. Gen Joseph, Arnbassador of the United States of Arnerica to the
Netherlands,
as Deputy Agent,

Mr. Stephen M. Schwebel, Deputy Legal Adviser, Departrnent of State,
as Deputy Agent and Counsel,

Mr. Thomas J. Dunnigan, Counsellor, Embassy of the United States of
Arnerica,

as Deputy Agent,
assisted by

Mr. David H. Srnall, Assistant Legal Adviser, Department of State,
Mr. Ted L. Stein, Attorney-Adviser, Department of State,
Mr. Hugh V. Simon, Jr., Second Secretary, Ernbassy of the United States of
Arnerica,

as Advisers,
and

the Islamic Republic of Iran,

composed as above,

delive the followingJudgment :

1. On 29 Novernber 1979, the Legal Adviser of the Department of State
of the United States of America handed to the Registrar an Application
instituting proceedings against the Islarnic Republic of Iran in respect of a dis-
pute concerning the seizure and holding as hostages of members of the
United States diplomatic and consular staff and certain other United States
nationals.

2. Pursuant to Article40, paragraph 2, of the Statute and Article 38, para-
graph 4, of the Rules of Court, the Application wasat oncecornmunicated to the
Govemrnent of Iran. In accordance with Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute
and Article 42 of the Rules of Court, the Secretary-General of the United
Nations, the Mernbers of the United Nations, and other States entitled to appear
before the Court were notified of the Application.
3. On 29 Novernber 1979, the sarne day as the Application was filed, theGovernment of the United States filed in the Registry of the Court a request

for the indication of provisional measures under Article 41 of the Statute
and Article 73 of the Rules of Court. By an Order dated 15 December 1979,
and adopted unanimously, the Court indicated provisional measures in the
case.
4. By an Order made by the President of the Court dated 24 December 1979,
15January 1980was fixed as the time-limit for the filing of the Memorial of the
United States, and 18February 1980as the time-limit for the Counter-Memonal
of Iran, with liberty for Iran, if it appointed an Agent for the purpose of
appearing before the Court and presenting its observations on the case, to apply
for reconsideration of such time-lirnit. The Memorial of the United States was

filed on 15January 1980, within the time-limit prescribed, and was cornmuni-
cated to the Government of Iran ;no Counter-Mernorial was filed by the Gov-
emment of Iran, nor was any agent appointed or any application made for
reconsideration of the time-limit.
5. The case thus became ready for hearing on 19 February 1980, the day
following the expiration of the time-limit fixed for the Counter-Memonal of
Iran. In circumstances explained in paragraphs 41 and 42 below, and after due
notice to the Parties, 18March 1980was fixed as the date for the opening of the
oral proceedings ;on 18,19and 20 March 1980,public hearings wereheld, in the
course of which the Court heard the oral argument of the Agent and Counsel of
the United States ; the Government of Iran was not represented at the hearings.

Questions were addressed to the Agent of the United States by Members of the
Court both during thecourse of the hearings and subsequently, and replieswere
given either orally at the hearings or in writing, in accordance with Article 61,
paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court.
6. On 6 December 1979,the Registrar addressed the notifications provided
for in Article 63 of the Statute of the Court to the States which according to
information supplied by the Secretary-General of the United Nations as de-
positary were parties to one or more of the following Conventions and Pro-
tocols :

(a) the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961 ;
(b) the Optional Protocol to that Convention concerning the Compulsory Set-
tlement of Disputes ;
(c) the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 1963 ;
(d) the Optional Protocol to that Convention concerning the Compulsory Set-

tlement of Disputes ;
(e) the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Inter-
nationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, of 1973.

7. The Court, after ascertaining the viewsof the Government of the United
States on the matter, and affording the Government of Iran the opportunity of
making its views known, decided pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the
Rules of Court that copies of the pleadings and documents annexed should be
made accessible to the public with effect from 25 March 1980.

8. In the course of the wntten proceedings the following submissions were
presented on behalf of the Government of the United States of America :in the Application :

"The United States requests the Court to adjudge and declare as fol-
lows :

(a) That the Government of Iran, in tolerating, encouraging, and failing to
prevent and punish theconduct described in the preceding Statement of
Facts, violated its intemational legalobligations to theUnited States as
provided by
- Articles 22,24,25,27,29,31,37 and 47of the Vienna Convention on

Diplomatic Relations,
- Articles 28,31,33,34,36 and 40 of the Vienna Convention on Con-
sular Relations,
- Articles 4and 7of theConvention on the Prevention and Punishment
of Crimes against Intemationally Protected Persons, including Dip-
lomatic Agents, and
- Articles II (4), XIII, XVIII and XIX of the Treaty of Amity, Eco-

nomic Relations, and Consular Rights between theUnited States and
Iran, and
- Articles 2 (3), 2 (4) and 33 of the Charter of the United Nations ;

(b) That pursuant to the foregoing international legal obligations, the

Government of Iran is under a particular obligation imrnediately to
secure the release of al1United Statesnationals currently beingdetained
within the premises of the United States Embassy in Tehran and to
assure that al1such persons and al1other United States nationals in
Tehran are allowed to leave Iran safely ;

(c) That the Government of Iran shall pay to the United States, in its own
right and in the exercise of its right of diplomatic protection of its

nationals, reparation for the foregoing violations of Iran's international
legal obligations to the United States, in a sum to be determined by the
Court ;and
(d) That the Government of Iran subrnit to itscompetent authorities for the
purpose of prosecution those persons responsible for the crimes com-
mitted against the premises and staff of the United States Embassy and
against the premises of its Consulates" ;

in the Memorial :

"The Government of the United States respectfully requests that the
Court adjudge and declare as follows :
(a) that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, in permitting,

tolerating, encouraging, adopting, and endeavouring to exploit, as well
as in failing to prevent and punish, the conduct descnbed in the State-
ment of the Facts, violated its international legal obligations to the
United States as provided by :
- Articles 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29,31, 37,44 and 47 of the Vienna Con-

vention on Diplomatic Relations ;
- Articles 5, 27, 28,31, 33, 34, 35,36, 40 and 72 of the Vienna Con-
vention on Consular Relations : - Article II (4), XIII, XVIII and XIX of the Treaty of Amity, Eco-
nomic Relations, and Consular Rights between the United States of
Arnerica and Iran ; and
- Articles 2,4 and 7 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including

Diplornatic Agents ;
(b) that, pursuant to the foregoing international legal obligations :

(i) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall immediately

ensure that the premises at the United States Embassy, Chancery
and Consulates are restored to the possession of the United States
authorities under their exclusive control, and shall ensure their
inviolability and effectiveprotection asprovided for by the treaties
in force between the two States, and by general international
law ;
(ii) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall ensure the
irnrnediate release, without any exception, of al1persons of United
States nationality who are or havebeen held in the Ernbassy of the
United States of Arnerica or in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in

Tehran, or who are or have been held as hostages elsewhere, and
afford full protection to al1such persons, in accordance with the
treaties in force between the two States, and with general interna-
tional law ;
(iii) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall, as from that
moment, afford to al1the diplomatic and consular personnel of the
United States the protection, pnvileges and immunities to which
they are entitled under the treaties in force between the two States,
and under general international law,including imrnunity from any
form of criminaljurisdiction and freedom and facilitiestoleavethe
territory of Iran ;

(iv) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall, in affording
the diplornatic and consular personnel of the United States the
protection, privileges and irnmunities to which they are entitled,
including irnrnunity from any form of criminaljurisdiction, ensure
that no such personnel shall be obliged to appear on trial or as a
witness, deponent, source of information, or in any other role, at
any proceedings, whether forrnal or inforrnal, initiated by or with
the acauiescence of the Iranian Government, whether such vro-
ceedings be denominated a 'trial', 'grand jury','international com-
mission' or othenvise ;

(v) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall submit to its
cornpetent authorities for the purpose of prosecution, or extradite
to the United States, those persons responsible for the crimes
cornmitted againstthe personnel and premises of the United States
Ernbassy and Consulates in Iran ;

(c) that the United States of Arnerica is entitled to the payrnent toit, in its
own right and in the exercise of its right of diplornatic protection of its
nationals held hostage, of reparation by the IslarnicRepublic of Iran for the violations of the above international legalobligations whichit owes
to the United States, in a sum to be determined by the Court at a
subsequent stage of the proceedings."

9. At the close of the oral proceedings, wntten submissions were filed in the
Registry of the Court on behalf of the Govemment of the United States of
America in accordance with Article 60, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court ; a
copy thereof was transrnitted to the Govemment of Iran. Those submissions
were identical with the submissions presented in the Memorial of the United
States.

10. No pleadings were filed by the Govemment of Iran, which also was not
represented at the oral proceedin~s, andno submissions werethereforepresented
on its behalf. The position of tkat Govemment was, however, defined in two
communications addressed to the Court by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of
Iran ;the first of these was a letter dated 9 December 1979and transmitted by
telegram the same day (the text of which wassetout in fullin the Court's Order of
15December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, pp. 10-11) ; the second was a letter
transmitted by telex dated 16March 1980and received on 17March 1980,the
text of which followedclosely that of the letter of 9 December 1979and reads as
follows :

[Translationfrom French]

"1have the honour to acknowledgereceipt of the telegram conceming the
meeting of the International Court ofJustice to beheld on 17March 1980at
the request of the Government of the United States of Amenca, and to set
forth for you below, once again, the position of the Govemment of the
Islamic Republic of Iran in that respect :

The Govemment of the Islamic Republic of Iran wishes to express its
respect for the International Court of Justice, and for its distinguished
Members, for what they have achieved in the quest for a just and equitable
solution to legal conflicts between States, and respectfully draws the atten-
tion of the Court to the deep-rootedness and the essential character of the
IslamicRevolution of Iran, arevolution of awholeoppressed nation against
its oppressors and their masters, the examination of whose numerous
repercussions is essentially and directly a matter within the national

sovereignty of Iran.
The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran considers that the Court
cannotand shouldnot takecognizance of the casewhich the Govemment of
the United States of America has submitted toit, and in the most significant
fashion,acaseconfined to what iscalled the question of the 'hostagesof the
American Embassy in Tehran'.
For this question only represents a marginal and secondary aspect of an
overall problem, one such that it cannot be studied separately, and which
involves, inter alia, more than 25years of continual interference by the
United States in the intemal affairs of Iran, the shameless exploitation of
Ourcountry, and numerous crimes perpetrated against the Iranian people,
contrary to and in conflict with al1 international and humanitarian

norms.
The problem involved in the conflict between Iran and the United States
isthus not one of the interpretation and the application of the treaties upon which the American Application is based, but results from an overall
situationcontainingmuchmorefundamentalandmorecomplexelements.
Consequently, the Court cannot examine the Amencan Application
divorcedfromitsproper context,namelythewholepoliticaldossierof the
relationsbetweenIran and the United Statesoverthe last 25years.
Withregard to therequestforprovisional measuresa ,sformulatedbythe
UnitedStates,itinfactimpliesthat theCourtshouldhavepassedjudgrnent
on theactualsubstanceof thecasesubmitted toit,whichthe Court cannot
do without breach of the normsgoverningits jurisdiction. Furthermore,
sinceprovisionalmeasuresarebydefinitionintended toprotecttheinterest
oftheparties,theycannotbeunilateral,astheyareintherequestsubmitted
by the AmericanGovemment."
The matters raised in those two communicationsare consideredlater in this
Judgment (paragraphs33-38and 81-82).

11. The position taken up by the Iranian Government in regard to the
present proceedings brings into operation Article 53 of the Statute, under
which the Court is required interaliato satisfy itself that the claims of the
Applicant are wellfounded in fact. As to this article theCourt pointed out
in the Corfu Channelcase that this requirement is to be understood as
applying within certain limits :

"While Article 53 thus obliges the Court to consider the submis-
sions of the Party which appears, it does not compel the Court to
examine their accuracy in al1their details ;for this might in certain
unopposed cases prove impossible in practice. It is sufficient for the
Court to convince itself by such methods as it considers suitable that
the submissions are well founded." (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 248.)

In the present case, the United States has explained that, owing to the
events in Iran of which it cornplains, it has been unable since then to
have access to its diplomatic and consular representatives, premises and
archives in Iran ;and that in consequence it has been unable to furnish
detailed factual evidence on some matters occumng after 4 November
1979.It mentioned in particular the lack of any factual evidence concern-
ing the treatment and conditions ofthepersons held hostage inTehran. On
this point, however, without givingthe names of the persons concerned, it
has submitted copies of declarations sworn by six of the 13 hostages who
had been released after two weeksof detention and returned to the United
States in November 1979.

12. The essentialfacts of the present caseare,for the most part,matters
of public knowledge which have received extensive coverage in the world
press and in radio and television broadcasts from Iran andother countries.They have been presented to the Court by the United States in its Me-
morial, in statements of itsAgent and Counselduring theoral proceedings,
and in written replies to questions put by Members of theCourt. Annexed
or appended to the Memorial arenumerous extracts of statementsmade by
Iranian and United States officials,either at press conferences or on radio
or television, and submitted to the Court in support of the request for

provisional measures and as a means of demonstrating the truth of the
account of the factsstated in the Memorial. Included alsoin the Memorial
is a "Statement of Venfication" made by a high officia1of the United
States Department of State having "overall responsibility within the
Department for matters relating to the crisis in Iran". While emphasizing
that in the circumstances of the case the United States has had to rely on
newspaper, radioand televisionreports fora number of the factsstated in
the Memorial, the high officia1concerned certifies that to the best of his
knowledge and belief the facts there stated are true. In addition, after the
filingof the Memorial, and byleaveoftheCourt, alargequantity offurther
documents of a similar kind to those already presented were submitted by
the United States for the purpose of bringing up to date the Court's
information conceming the continuing situation in regard to the occupa-
tion of the Embassy and detention of the hostages.
13. The result is that the Court has available to it a massive body of
informationfrom various sources concerning the facts and circumstances
of the present case,including numerous officia]statements of both Iranian
and United States authorities. So far as newspaper, radio and television
reports emanatingfrom Iran are concerned, theCourt has necessarily in
some cases relied on translations into English supplied by the Applicant.
The information available, however,is wholly consistent and concordant

as to the main facts and circumstances of the case. This information, as
well asthe United States Memorial and therecordsof the oral proceedings,
has al1 been communicated bv the Court to the Iranian Government
without having evokedfrom th; Governmentany denial or questioning of
the facts alleged before the Court by the United States. Accordingly, the
Court is satisfied that, within the meaning of Article 53of the Statute, the
allegations offact onwhichtheUnited States basesits claimsin thepresent
case are well founded.

14. Before examining the events of 4 November 1979,directly com-
plained of by the Government of the United States, it is appropriate to
mention certain other incidents whichoccurred before that date.At about
10.45a.m.on 14February 1979,during the unrest in Iran followingthe fa11
of the Government of Dr. Bakhtiar, the last Prime Minister appointed by
the Shah, an armed group attacked and seizedthe United States Embassy
in Tehran, taking prisoner the 70 persons they found there, including the
Ambassador. Two persons associated with the Embassy staffwere killed;
serious damage was caused to the Embassy and there were some acts ofpillaging of the Ambassador's residence.On this occasion, whilethe Iran-
ian authorities had not been able to prevent the incursion, they acted
promptly in response to the urgent appeal for assistance made by the
Embassy during the attack. At about 12noon, Mr. Yazdi, then a Deputy
Prime Minister, arrived at the Embassy accompanied by a member of the
national police, at least one officia1and a contingent of Revolutionary
Guards ; they quelled the disturbance and returned control of the com-

pound to Amencan diplomatic officials. On 11March 1979the United
StatesAmbassador received a letter dated 1 March from the Prime Mini-
ster, Dr. Bazargan, expressing regrets for the attack on the Embassy,
stating that arrangementshad been made toprevent any repetition of such
incidents, and indicating readiness to make reparation for the damage.
Attacks were also made during the same period on the United States
Consulates in Tabriz and Shiraz.
15. In October 1979,the Govemment of the United States was con-
templating perrnitting the former Shah of Iran, whowasthen in Mexico,to
enter the United States for medical treatment. Officiais of the United
States Government feared that, in the political climate prevailing in Iran,
the admission of the former Shah might increase the tension already
existing between the two States, and interalia result in renewed violence
against the United States Embassy in Tehran, and it was decided for this
reason to request assurances from the Govemment of Iran that adequate
protection would be provided. On 21 October 1979,at a meeting at whch
were present the Iranian Prime Mi~ster, Dr. Bazargan, the Iranian Min-
ister for Foreign Affairs, Dr. Yazdi, and the United States Chargé d'af-
faires in Tehran, the Govemment of Iran was informed of the decision to
admit theformer Shah to the United States, and of the concern felt by the
United States Government about the possible public reaction in Tehran.

When the United States Chargé d'affaires requested assurances that the
Embassy and its personnel would be adequately protected, assurances
were given by the Foreign Minister that the Government of Iran would
fulfil its international obligation to protect the Embassy. The request for
such assurances was repeated at a further meeting the following day,
22 October, and the Foreign Minister renewed his assurances that protec-
tion would be provided. The former Shah arrived in the United States on
22 October. On 30October, the Govemment of Iran, whichhad repeatedly
expressed its serious opposition to the admission of the former Shah to the
United States, and had asked the United States to permit two Iranian
physicians to verify the reality and the nature of his illness,requested the
United States to bring about his return to Iran. Nevertheless, on 31Octo-
ber, the Security Officer of the United States Embassy was told by the
Commander of the Iranian National Police that the police had been
instructed to provide full protection for the personnel of the Embassy.
16. On 1November 1979,while a very large demonstration was being
held elsewherein Tehran, large numbers of demonstrators marched to and
fro in front of the United States Embassy. Under the then existingsecurity
arrangements the Iranian authorities normally maintained 10to 15uni-formed policemen outside the Embassy compound and a contingent of
Revolutionary Guards nearby ;on this occasion the normal complement
of police wasstationed outside thecompound and the Embassyreported to
the State Departmentthat itfeltconfident that itcouldgetmoreprotection
ifneeded. The Chiefof Policecame to the Embassypersonally and met the
Chargéd'affaires, whoinformed Washington that the Chief was "taking
lusjob ofprotecting the Embassyveryseriously". It wasannounced on the
radio, and by the prayer leader at the main demonstration in another

location in the city, that people should not go to the Embassy. During the
day, the number of demonstrators at the Embassy was around 5,000,but
protection was maintained by Iranian securityforces.That evening,as the
crowddispersed,both the Iranian Chiefof Protocol and the Chiefof Police
expressed relief to the Chargéd'affaires that everything had gone well.

17. Atapproximately 10.30a.m.on4November 1979,during thecourse
of a demonstration of approximately 3,000 persons, the United States
Embassy compound in Tehran was overrun by a strong armed group of
several hundred people. The Iranian security personnel are reported to
have simplydisappeared from the scene ; at al1eventsit isestablished that
they made no apparent effort to deter or prevent the demonstrators from
seizing the Embassy's premises. The invading group (who subsequently
described themselves as "Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's
Policy", and who willhereafter be referred to as "the militants") gained ac-
cess by force to the compound and to the ground floor of the Chancery
building. Over two hours after the beginning of the attack, and after the
militants had attempted to set fire to the Chancery building and to cut
through the upstairs steeldoors with atorch, they gainedentrytotheupper

floor ;onehour later they gained control of the main vault. The militants
also seized the other buildings, including the various residences, on the
Embassy compound. In the course of the attack, al1the diplomatic and
consular personnel and other persons present in the prerniseswere seized
as hostages, and detained in the Embassy compound ;subsequently other
United States personnel and one United States private citizen seized
elsewhere in Tehran were brought to the compound and added to the
number of hostages.

18. During thethreehoursor moreof theassault, repeated callsfor help
were made from the Embassy to the Iranian Foreign Ministry, and re-
peated efforts to secure help from the Iranian authorities were also made
through direct discussions by the United StatesChargéd'affaires, whowas
at the Foreign Ministry at the time, together withtwoother members ofthe
mission. From there he madecontact with the Prime Minister's Officeand
with Foreign Ministry officials. A request was also made to the Iranian
Chargé d'affairesin Washington for assistance in putting an end to the
seizure of the Embassy. Despite these repeated requests, no Iranian secu-nty forces were sent in time to provide relief and protection to the
Embassy. In fact when Revolutionary Guards ultimately arrived on the
scene, despatched by the Government "to prevent clashes", they con-
sidered that their task was merely to "protect the safety of both the
hostages and the students", according to statements subsequently made by
the Iranian Government's spokesman, and by the operations commander
of the Guards. No attempt was made by the Iranian Government to clear
the Embassy premises, to rescue the persons held hostage, or to persuade
the militants to terminate their action against the Embassy.

19. During the morning of 5 November, only hours after the seizureof
the Embassy, the United States Consulates in Tabriz and Shirazwere also
seized ; again the Iranian Government took no protective action. The
operation of these Consulates had been suspended since the attack in
February 1979(paragraph 14above), and therefore no United States per-
sonnel were seized on these premises.
20. The United States diplomatic mission and consular posts in Iran
were not the only ones whose premises were subjected to demonstrations
during the revolutionary penod in Iran. On 5 November 1979,a group
invaded the British Embassy in Tehran but was ejected after a brief
occupation. On 6 November 1979a brief occupation of the Consulate of
Iraq at Kermanshah occurredbut wasbrought to an end on instructions of
the Ayatollah Khomeini ;no damage was done to the Consulate or its
contents. On 1January 1980 an attack was made on the Embassy in

Tehran of the USSR by a large mob, but asa result of theprotection given
by the Iranian authorities to the Embassy, no serious damage was
done.
21. The premises of the United States Embassy in Tehran have
remained in the hands of militants ;and the same appears to be the case
with the Consulates at Tabnz and Shiraz. Of the total number of United
States citizens seizedand held as hostages, 13were released on 18-20No-
vember 1979,but theremainder havecontinued tobe held up to thepresent
time. The release of the 13hostages was effected pursuant to a decree by
the Ayatollah Khomeini addressed to the militants, dated 17November
1979,in which he called upon the militants to "hand over the blacks and
the women, if it is proven they did not spy, to the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs so that they may be immediately expelled from Iran".
22. The persons still held hostage in Iran include, according to the
information furnished to the Court by the United States, at least 28
persons having the status, duly recognized by the Government of Iran, of
"member of the diplomatic staff" within the meaning of the Vienna Con-
vention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961;at least 20 persons having the
status, similarly recognized, of "member of the administrative and tech-
nical staff" within the meaning ofthat Convention ;and twoother persons
of United States nationality not possessing either diplomatic or consular
status. Of the persons with the status of member of the diplomatic staff,

four are members of the Consular Section of the Mission.14 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

23. Allegations have been made by the Govemment of the United
States of inhumane treatment of hostages ; the militants and Iranian

authorities have asserted thatthe hostages havebeen welltreated, and have
allowed special visits to the hostages by religious personalities and by
representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross. The
specific allegations of ill-treatment have not however been refuted. Ex-
amples of such allegations, whch are mentioned in some of the sworn de-
clarations of hostages released in November 1979,are as follows :at the
outset of the occupation of the Embassy some were paraded bound and
blindfolded before hostile and chanting crowds ;at least during the initial
period of their captivity,hostages were kept bound, and frequently blind-
folded, denied mail or any communication with their government or with
each other, subjected to interrogation, threatened with weapons.

24. Those archives and documents of the United States Embassy which
werenot destroyed by the staff during the attack on 4 November havebeen
ransacked by the militants. Documents purporting to corne from this

source have been disseminated by the militants and by the Govemment-
controlled media.
25. The United States Chargé d'affaires in Tehran and the two other
members of the diplomatic staff of the Embassy who were in the premises
of the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs at the timeof the attack havenot
left the Ministry since ;their exact situation there has been the subject of
conflictingstatements. On 7 November 1979,it wasstated in an announce-
ment by the Iranian Foreign Ministry that "as the protection of foreign
nationals is the duty of the Iranian Government", the Chargéd'affaires
was "staying in" the Ministry. On 1 December 1979, Mr. Sadegh
Ghotbzadeh, who had become Foreign Minister, stated that

"it has been announced that, if the U.S. Embassy's chargéd'affaires
and his two companions, who have sought asylum in the Iranian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, should leave this ministry, the ministry
would not accept any responsibility for them".
According to a press report of4 December, the Foreign Minister amplified
this statement by saying that as long as they remained in the ministry he
was personally responsible for ensuring that nothing happened to them,
but that "as soonas they leavethe ministry precincts they will fa11back into

the hands of justice, and then 1will be the first to demand that they be
arrested and tried". The militants made it clear that they regarded the
Chargé and his two colleagues as hostages also. When in March 1980the
Public Prosecutor of the Islamic Revolution of Iran called for one of the
three diplomats to behanded over tohim, itwas announced by the Foreign
Minister that
"Regarding the fate of the three Americans in the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, the decision rests first with the imam of the nation
[i.e.,theAyatollah Khomeini] ;in case there isno cleardecision by the imam of the nation, the Revolution Council will make a decision on
this matter."

26. From the outset of the attack upon its Embassy in Tehran, the
United States protested to theGovemment of Iranboth at the attack and
at the seizure and detention of the hostages. On 7November a former
Attorney-General of the United States,Mr. Ramsey Clark, was instructed
togowithan assistant to Iran todeiiveramessagefrom the President ofthe
United States to the Ayatollah Khomeini. The text of that messagehas not
been made available to the Court by the Applicant, but the United States
Govemment has informed the Court that it thereby protested at the
conduct of the Government of Iran and called for release of the hostages,
andthat Mr.Clark wasalsoauthorized todiscussal1avenuesfor resolution
of the crisis.While hewasenroute, Tehranradiobroadcast amessagefrom
the Ayatollah Khomeini dated 7November, solemnly forbidding mem-
bers of the Revolutionary Council and al1the responsible officialsto meet
the United States representatives. In that messageitwas asserted that "the
U.S. Embassyin Iran isour enemies'centreofespionageagainst oursacred
Islamic movement", and the message continued :

"Should the United States hand over to Iran the deposed shah ...
and giveup espionage against our movement, the way to talks would
be opened on the issue of certain relations which are in the interest of
the nation."

Subsequently, despite the efforts of the United Sates Govemment to open
negotiations, it became clear that the Iranian authorities would have no
direct contact with representatives of the United States Govemment con-
cerning the holding of the hostages.

27. During the period which has elapsed since the seizure of the Em-
bassy a number of statements have been made by various govemmental
authorities in Iran which are relevant to the Court's examination of the
responsibiiity attributed to the Government of Iran in the submissions of
the United States. These statements will be examined by the Court in
considering these submissions (paragraphs 59 and 70-74 below).

28. On 9November 1979,the Permanent Representative of the United
States to the United Nations addressed a letter to the President of the
Security Council, requesting urgent consideration of what might be done
to secure the release of the hostages and to restore the "sanctity of dip-
lomatic personnel and establishments". The sameday, the President of the
Security Council made a public statement urging the release of the hos-
tages, and the President of the General Assembly announced that he was
sending apersona1messageto theAyatollah Khomeini appealing for their16 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

release. On 25 November 1979, the Secretary-General of the United
Nations addressed a letter to the President of the Security Council refer-
rin" to the seizure of the United States Embassv in Tehran and the de-
tention of its diplomatic personnel, and requesting an urgent meeting of
the Security Council "in an effort to seek a peaceful solution to the
problem". The Security Council met on 27November and 4 December
1979 ;on the latter occasion, no representative of Iran waspresent, but the
Council took note of a letter of 13November 1979from the Supervisorof
the Iranian Foreign Ministry to the Secretary-General. The Security
Council then adopted resolution 457(1979),caliing on Iran to release the
personnel of the Embassy immediately, to provide them with protection
and to allow them to leave the country. The resolution also called on the
two Governments to take steps to resolvepeacefully the remaining issues
between them, and requested the Secretary-General to lend his good
offices for the immediateimplementation of the resolution, and to take al1

appropriate measures to that end. It further stated that the Council would
"remain actively seized of the matter" and requested the Secretary-Gen-
eral to report to it urgently on any developments with regard to his
efforts.
29. On 31December 1979,the SecurityCouncil met again and adopted
resolution 461 (1979), in which it reiterated both its calls to the Iranian
Government and its request to the Secretary-General to lend his good
offices for achieving the object of the Council's resolution.The Secretary-
General visited Tehran on 1-3January 1980,and reported to the Security
Council on 6 January. On 20 February 1980,the Secretary-General an-
nounced the setting up of a commission to undertake a "fact-finding
mission" to Iran. The Court will revert to the terms of reference of this
commission and the progress of its work in connection with a question of
adrnissibility of the proceedings (paragraphs 39-40 below).

30. Prior to the institution of the present proceedings,in addition to the
approach made by the Government of the United States to the United
Nations Security Council, that Government also took certain unilateral
actionin responseto theactionsfor wluchit holds theGovernment of Iran
responsible. On 10November 1979,stepswere taken to identify al1Iranian
students in the United States whowerenot in compliancewith the terms of
their entry visas, and to commence deportation proceedings against those
who were in violation of applicableimmigration lawsand regulations. On
12November 1979, the President of the United States ordered the dis-
continuation of al1oil purchases from Iran for delivery to the United
States. Believingthat the Govemment of Iran was about to withdraw al1
Iranian funds fromUnited States banks and to refuseto acceptpayment in
dollars for oil, and to repudiate obligations owed to the United States and
to United States nationals, the President on 14November 1979acted to

block the verylargeofficia1Iranian assetsin theUnited Statesor in United17 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

Statescontrol, including deposits bothin banks inthe United Statesand in
foreign branches and subsidiaries of United States banks. On 12 Decem-

ber 1979,aftertheinstitution of the present proceedings, the United States
informed the Iranian Chargéd'affaires in Washington that thenumber of
personnel assigned to the Iranian Embassy and consular posts in the
United States was to be restricted.
31. Subsequently to the indication by the Court of provisional mea-
sures, and during the present proceedings, the United States Government
took other action. A draft resolution was introduced into the United
Nations Security Council calling for economic sanctions against Iran.
When it was put to the vote on 13January 1980,the result was 10votesin
favour,2 against, and 2 abstentions (onemember not havingparticipated
in the voting) ;as apermanent member of the Councilcast anegativevote,
the draft resolution was not adopted. On 7 April 1980the United States

Government broke off diplomatic relations with the Government of Iran.
At the same time, the United States Government prohibited exports from
the United States to Iran - one of the sanctions previouslyproposed by it
to the Security Council. Steps were taken to prepare an inventory of the
assets of the Government of Iran frozen on 14November 1979.and to
make a census of outstanding claims of American nationals against the
Government of Iran, with a viewto "designing a program against Iran for
the hostages, the hostage families and other U.S. claimants" involvingthe
preparation of legislation "to facilitate processing and paying of these
claims" and al1visas issued to Iranian citizens for future entry into the
United States were cancelled. On 17April 1980,the United States Gov-
ernment announced further economic measures directed against Iran,
prohibited travel there by United States citizens, and made further plans

for reparations to be paid to the hostages and their families out of frozen
Iranian assets.

32. During the night of 24-25April 1980the President of the United
States setin motion, and subsequentlyterminated for technicalreasons, an
operation withn Iranian temtory designed to effect the rescue of the
hostages by United States military units. In an announcement made on
25 April, President Carter explained that the operation had been planned
over a long period as a humanitarian mission to rescue the hostages, and
had finallybeen setin motion byhim in thebelief that thesituation inIran
posed mounting dangers to the safety of the hostages and that their early
release was highly unlikely. He stated that the operation had been under

wayinIran when equipment failurecompelled itstermination ;and that in
thecourse of the withdrawal of the rescueforcestwo United Statesaircraft
had collided in a remote desert location in Iran. He further stated that
preparations for the rescue operationshad been ordered forhumanitarian
reasons, to protect the national interests of the United States, and to
alleviate international tensions. At thesame time,he emphasized that the
operation had not been motivated by hostility towards Iran or the Iranian
people. The texts of President Carter's announcementand of certainotherofficia1documents relating to the operation have been transmitted to the
Court by the United States Agent in response to a request made by the
President of the Court on 25April. Amongst thesedocuments isthe text of
a report made by the United States to the Security Council on 25 April,
"pursuant to Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations". In that
report, the United Statesmaintained that the missionhad been carried out
by it "in exercise of its inherent right of self-defence with the aim of
extricating American nationals who have been and remain the victims of
the Iranian armed attack on OurEmbassy". The Court willrefer further to
this operation later in the present Judgment (paragraphs 93 and 94
below).

33. It is tobe regretted that the Iranian Government has not appeared
before the Courtin order toput forwardits arguments onthe questions of
law and of fact which arise in the present case ;and that, in consequence,
the Court has not had the assistance it might have derived from such
arguments or fromany evidenceadduced insupport ofthem.Nevertheless,
in accordance with its settledjurisprudence, the Court, in applyingArti-

cle 53 of its Statute, must first take up, proprio motu, any preliminary
question, whether of admissibility or ofjurisdiction, that appears from the
information before it to arise in the case and the decision of which might
constitute abar to anyfurther examination of the meritsof theApplicant's
case.TheCourt will,therefore, first address itselfto the considerations put
forward by the Iranian Government in its letters of 9 December 1979and
16March 1980,on the basis of whichitmaintains that the Court ought not
to take cognizance of the present case.
34. The Iranian Government in its letter of 9 December 1979 drew
attention to what it referred to as the "deep rootedness and the essential
character of the Islarnic Revolution of Iran, a revolution of a whole
oppressed nation against its oppressors and their masters". The examina-
tion of the "numerous repercussions" of the revolution, it added, is "a
matter essentially and directly within the national sovereignty of Iran".
However, as the Court pointed out in its Order of 15December 1979,

"a dispute whch concems diplomatic and consular premises and the
detention of internationally protected persons, and involvesthe inter-
pretation or application of multilateral conventions codifying the
international law governing diplomatic and consular relations, is one
which by its verynature fallswithin international jurisdiction" (I.C.J.
Reports 1979, p. 16,para. 25).

In its later letter of 16March 1980the Govemment of Iran confined itself
to repeating the observations on thispoint whichithad made inits letter of
9 December 1979,without putting forward any additional arguments or
explanations. In these circumstances, the Court finds it sufficient here to
recall and confirm its previous statement on the matter in its Order of
15December 1979. 35. In itsletter of 9 December 1979the Government of Iran maintained
that theCourt could not and should not take cognizanceof thepresent case
for another reason, namely that the case submitted to the Court by the
United States, is"confined to what iscalled the question of the 'hostagesof
the American Embassy in Tehran' ". It then went on to explain why it
considered this to preclude the Court from taking cognizance of the
case :

"For thisquestion only represents a marginal and secondary aspect
of an overall problem, one such that it cannot be studied separately,
and which involves, inter aliamore than 25years of continual inter-
ference by the United States in the internal affairs of Iran, the
shameless exploitation of our country, and numerous crimes perpe-
trated against the Iranian people, contrary to and in conflict with al1
international and humanitarian norms.
The problem involved in the conflict between Iran and the United
States is thus not one of the interpretation and the application of the
treaties upon which the American Application is based, but results
from an overall situation containing much more fundamental and

more complex elements. Consequently, theCourtcannot examine the
American Application divorced from its proper context, namely the
whole political dossier of the relations between Iran and the United
States over the last 25 years. This dossier includes,inter alia,al1the
crimesperpetrated in Iranby theAmerican Government, inparticular
the coup d'état of 1953 stirred up and carried out by the CIA, the
overthrow of the lawful national government of Dr. Mossadegh, the
restoration of the Shah and of his régime which was under the control
of American interests, and al1 the social, economic, cultural and
political consequences of the direct interventions in our internal
affairs, as well as grave, flagrant and continuous violations of al1
international norms, committed by the United States in Iran."

36. The Court, however,in itsOrder of 15December 1979,made itclear
that the seizure of the United States Embassy and Consulates and the
detention of internationally protected persons as hostages cannot be con-
sidered as something "secondary" or "marginal", having regard to the
importance of the legalprinciples involved. It also referred to a statement
of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and to Security Council
resolution 457 (1979),as evidencing the importance attached by theinter-
nationalcommunityas a whole to theobservance of those principles in the
present case aswellasitsconcern at thedangerous leveloftension between
Iran and the United States. The Court, at the same time, pointed out that
no provision of the Statute or Rules contemplates that the Court should
decline to take cognizance of one aspect of a dispute merely because that
dispute has other aspects, however important. It further underlined that, if
the Iranian Government considered the alleged activities of the United
States in Iran legally to have a close connection with thesubject-matter of20 DIPLOMATlC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

the United States' Application, it was opento that Government to present
its own arguments regarding those activities to the Court either by way of
defence in a Counter-Memorial or by way of a counter-claim.

37. The Iranian Government, notwithstanding the terms of the Court's
Order, did not file any pleadings and did not appear before the Court. By
its own choice, therefore, it has forgone the opportunities offered to it

under the Statute and Rules of Courtto submit evidenceand arguments in
support of its contention in regard to the "overall problem". Even in its
later letter of 16March 1980,the Government of Iran confined itself to
repeating what it had said initsletter of9 December 1979,without offering
any explanations in regard to the points to which the Court had drawn
attention inits Order of 15December 1979.It has provided noexplanation
of the reasons why it considers that the violations of diplomatic and
consular lawalleged in the United States'Application cannot be examined
by the Court separately from what it describes as the "overall problem"
involving "more than 25 years of continual interference by the United
States in the interna1 affairs of Iran". Nor has itmade any attempt to
explain, still less define, what connection, legal or factual, there may be
between the "overall problem" of itsgeneral grievances against the United
States and the particular events that gave rise to the United States' claims
in the present case which,inits view,precludesthe separate examination of
those claims by the Court. This was the more necessary because legal
disputes between sovereignStates by their verynature arelikelytooccurin
political contexts, and often form only one element in a wider and long-
standing political dispute between the Statesconcerned. Yet neverhas the
viewbeen put forward before that, because alegaldispute submitted tothe

Court is only one aspect of a political dispute, the Court should decline to
resolve for the parties the legal questions at issue between them. Nor can
any basis for such a viewof the Court's functions orjurisdiction be found
in theCharter or the Statute of theCourt ;if the Court were,contrary toits
settledjurisprudence, to adopt such a view,it would impose a far-reaching
and unwarranted restriction upon the role of the Court in the peaceful
solution of international disputes.

38. It follows that the'considerations and arguments put forward in the
Iranian Government's letters of 9 December 1979and 16March 1980do
not, in the opinion of the Court, disclose any ground on which it should
conclude that it cannot or ought not to take cognizance of the present
case.

39. TheCourt, however, has also thought it right to examine, ex officio,
whether its competence to decide the present case, or the admissibility of
the present proceedings, rnight possibly have been affected by the setting
up of the Commission announced by the Secretary-General of the United21 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

Nations on 20 February 1980.As alreadyindicated, the occupation of the

Embassy and detention ofitsdiplomatic and consular staff ashostages was
referred to the United Nations Security Council by the United States on
9 November 1979 and by the Secretary-General on 25November. Four
days later, while the matter was still before the Security Council, the
United States submitted the present Application to the Court together
with a request for the indication of provisional measures. On 4 December,
the Security Council adopted resolution 457 (1979) (the terms of which
have already been indicated in paragraph 28 above), whereby the Council
would "remain actively seized of the matter" and the Secretary-General
was requested to report to it urgently on developments regarding the
efforts he was to make pursuant to the resolution. In announcing the
settingup of the Commission on 20 February 1980,the Secretary-General
stated its terms of reference to be "to undertake a fact-finding mission to
Iran tohear Iran's gnevances and to allowfor an early solution of the crisis
between Iran and the United States" ;and he further stated that it was to
complete its work as soon as possible and submit its report to him. Sub-
sequently, in a messagecabled to the President of the Court on 15March
1980,the Secretary-Generalconfirmed the mandate of the Commission to
be as stated in his announcement of 20 February, adding that the Gov-
ernments of Iranand the United States had "agreed to the establishment of

theCommission on that basis". In this message,the Secretary-General also
informed the Court of the decision of the Commission to suspend its
activities in Tehran and to return to New York on 11March 1980 "to
confer with the Secretary-General with a viewto pursuing its tasks which it
regards as indivisible". The message stated that while, in the circum-
stances, the Commission was not in a position to submit itsreport, it was
prepared to return to Tehran, in accordance with its mandate and the
instructions of the Secretary-General, when the situation required. The
message further stated that the Secretary-General would continue his
efforts, as requested by the Security Council, to search for a peaceful
solution of thecrisis, and would remain in contact with the parties and the
Commission regarding the resumption of its work.

40. Consequently,there can be nodoubt at al1that the SecurityCouncil
was "actively seized of the matter" and that the Secretary-General was
under an express mandate from the Council to use his good officesin the
matter when, on 15December, the Court decided unanimously that it was
competent to entertain the United States' request for an indication of
provisional measures, and proceeded toindicate suchmeasures. Asalready
mentioned the Council met again on 31 December 1979 and adopted
resolution 461(1979). In the preamble to this second resolution the Secu-

rity Council expresslytook into accountthe Court's Order of 15December
1979 indicating provisional measures ; and it does not seem to have
occurred to any member of the Council that there wasor could beanything
irregular in the simultaneous exercise of their respective functions by the
Court and the Security Council. Nor is there in this any cause for surprise.22 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

Whereas Article 12of the Charter expresslyforbids the General Assembly

to make any recommendation with regard to a dispute or situation while
the Security Coüncil isexercising itsfunctions in respect of that dispute or
situation,no such restriction is placed on the functioning of the Court by
any provision of either theCharter or the Statute of the Court. The reasons
are clear. It is for the Court, the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, to resolveany legalquestionsthat may be in issuebetween parties
to a dispute ;and the resolution of such legal questions by the Court may
be an important,and sometimes decisive, factor in promoting thepeaceful
settlement of the dispute. This is indeed recognized by Article 36 of the
Charter, paragraph 3 of which specifically provides that :

"In making recommendations under thisArticle the SecurityCoun-
cil should also take into consideration that legal disputes should as a
general rule be referred by the parties to the International Court of
Justice in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the
Court."
41. In the present instance the proceedings before the Court continued
in accordance with the Statute and Rules of Court and, on 15January
1980,the United States filed its Memorial. The time-limit fixedfordelivery
of Iran's Counter-Memorial then expired on 18February 1980without
Iran's having filed a Counter-Memorial or having made a request for the

extension of the time-limit. Consequently, on the following day the case
became ready for hearing and, pursuant to Article 31 of the Rules, the
views of the Applicant State were requested regarding the date for the
opening of the oral proceedings. On 19 February 1980 the Court was
informed by the United States Agent that, owing to the delicate stage of
negotiations bearing upon the release of the hostages in the United States
Embassy, he would be grateful if the Court for the time being would defer
settinga date fortheopening of the oral proceedings. Onthe verynext day,
20 February, the Secretary-General announced the establishment of the
above-mentioned Commission, which commenced its work in Tehran on
23 February. Asked on 27 February to clarify the position of the United
States in regard to the future procedure, the Agent stated that the Com-
mission would not address itself to the claims submitted by the United
States to the Court.The United States, he said, continued to be anxious to
secure an early judgment on the merits, and he suggested 17March as a
convenient date for the opening of the oral proceedings. At the same time,
however, he added that consideration of the well-being of the hostages
might lead the United States to suggest a later date.The Iranian Govern-
ment was then asked, in a telex message of 28 February, for any views it

might wish to express as to the date for the opening of the hearings,
mention being made of 17March as one possible date. No reply had been
received from the Iranian Government when, on 10March, the Cornmis-
sion, unable to complete its mission, decided to suspend its activities in
Tehran and to return to New York.
42. On 11March, that is immediately upon the departure of the Com-23 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

mission fromTehran, the United Statesnotified the Court of its readiness
to proceed with the hearings, suggesting that they should begin on
17March. A further telexwas accordinglysent tothe Iranian Government
on 12March informing it of the United States' request andstatingthat the
Court would meet on 17March to determine the subsequent procedure.
The Iranian Government's replywas contained in the letter of 16March to
which the Court has already referred (paragraph 10above). In that letter,
while making no mention of the proposed oral proceedings, the Iranian
Govemment reiterated the reasons advanced in its previous letter of
9 December 1979for considering that the Court ought not to take cogni-
zance of thecase. Theletter contained no reference to theCommission, and

still less any suggestion that thecontinuance of the proceedings before the
Court might be affected by the existence of the Commission or the man-
dategiven to the Secretary-General bythe SecurityCouncil. Having regard
to the circumstances which theCourt has described, it can find no trace of
any understanding on the part of either the United States or Iran that the
establishment of the Commission might involve a postponement of al1
proceedings before the Court until the conclusion of the work of the
Commission and of the Security Council's consideration of the matter.
43. The Commission, as previously observed, was established to under-
take a "fact-finding mission to Iran to hear Iran's gnevances and to allow
for an early solution of the crisis between Iran and the United States"
(emphasisadded). It was not set up by the Secretary-General as a tribunal
empowered to decide the matters of fact or of lawin dispute between Iran
andthe United States ;nor wasitssetting up accepted by them on any such
basis. On the contrary, he created the Commission rather as an organ or

instrument for mediation, conciliation or negotiation to provide a means
of easing the situation of crisis existing between the two countries ;and
this,clearly, was the basis on which Iranandthe United States agreed toits
being set up. The establishment of the Commission by the Secretary-
Generai with the agreement of the two States cannot, therefore, be con-
sidered initself asinany wayincompatible with the continuance ofparallel
proceedings before the Court. Negotiation, enquiry, mediation, concilia-
tion, arbitration and judicial settlement are enumerated together in Arti-
cle 33 of the Charteras means for the peaceful settlement of disputes. As
waspointed out intheAegeanSea ContinentalShelfcase, thejurisprudence
of the Court provides various examples of cases in which negotiations and
recourse tojudicial settlement by the Court have been pursuedparipassu.
In that case, in which also the dispute had been referred to the Security
Council, the Court held expressly that "the fact that negotiations are being
actively pursued during the present proceedings is not, legally, any
obstacle to the exercise by the Court of its judicial function" (I.C.J.

Reports 1978, p. 12,para. 29).

44. Itfollows that neither themandate givenby the Security Council to
the Secretary-General in resolutions 457 and 461 of 1979,nor the setting
up of the Commission by the Secretary-General, can be considered asconstituting any obstacle to the exerciseof the Court'sjurisdiction in the
present case. It further follows that the Court must now proceed, in
accordance with Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Statute, to determine
whether it has jurisdiction to decide the present case and whether the
United States' claimsare well founded in fact and in law.

45. Article 53 of the Statute requires the Court, before deciding in
favour of an Applicant's claim, to satisfy itself that it hasjurisdiction, in
accordance with Articles 36and 37,empowering it to do so. In the present
case the principal claims of the United States relate essentially to alleged
violations by Iran of itsobligations to the United States under the Vienna
Conventions of 1961on Diplornatic Relations and of 1963on Consular
Relations.With regard to theseclaims the United Stateshas invoked as the
basis for the Court's jurisdiction Article1of the Optional Protocols con-
cerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes which accompany these
Conventions. The United Nations publication Multilateral Treaties in
respectof whichthe Secretaty-GeneralPerformsDepositoryFunctionslists

both Iran and the United States as parties to the Vienna Conventions of
1961and 1963,as also to their accompanying Protocols concerning the
Compulsory Settlement of Disputes, and in each case without any reser-
vation to the instrument in question. The Vienna Conventions, whch
codify the law of diplomatic and consular relations, state principles and
rules essential for the maintenance of peaceful relations between States
and accepted throughout the world by nations of al1creeds, cultures and
political complexions. Moreover, the Iranian Government has not main-
tained in its communications to the Court that the two Vienna Conven-
tions and Protocols are not in force as between Iran and the United States.
Accordingly, as indicated in the Court's Order of 15December 1979,the
Optional Protocols manifestly provide a possible basis for the Court's
jurisdiction, with respect to the United States' claimsunder the Vienna
Conventions of 1961 and 1963. It only remains, therefore, to consider
whether the present dispute in fact falls within the scope of their provi-
sions.

46. The terms of Article 1, which are the same in the two Protocols,
provide :

"Disputes arising out of the interpretation or application of the
Convention shall lie within the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Inter-
national Court of Justice and may accordingly be brought before the
Court by an application made by any party to the dispute being a
Party to the present Protocol."

The United States' claims here in question concern alleged violations by
Iran of its obligationsunder several articles of the Vienna Conventions of
1961and 1963with respect to the privileges and immunities of the per-sonnel, the inviolability of the premises and archives, and the provision of
facilities for the performance of the functions of the United States Em-
bassy and Consulates in Iran. In so far as its claims relate to two private
individuals held hostage in the Embassy, the situation of these individuals
falls under the provisions of the Vienna Convention of 1961guaranteeing
the inviolability of the premises of embassies, and of Article 5 of the 1963
Convention concerning the consular functions of assisting nationals and

protecting and safeguarding their interests. By their very nature al1these
claims concern theinterpretation or application of oneorother of the two
Vienna Conventions.

47. The occupation of the United States Embassy by militants on
4 November 1979and the detention of its personnel as hostages was an
event of akind toprovoke an immediate protest fromanygovernment, asit
did from the United States Government, which despatched a special
emissary to Iran to deliver aformal protest. Although the specialemissary,
denied al1contact with Iranian officials, never entered Iran, the Iranian
Government was left in nodoubt as to the reaction of the United States to
the takingover ofits Embassy and detention ofitsdiplomatic and consular
staff as hostages. Indeed, the Court was informed that the United States
was meanwhile making its views known to the Iranian Government
through itsCharge d'affaires,who has been kept since4 November 1979in
the Iranian Foreign Ministry itself, where he happened to be with two
other members of his mission during the attack on the Embassy. In any
event, by a letter of 9November 1979, the United States brought the
situation in regard to its Embassy before the Security Council. The Iranian
Government did not take any part in the debates on the matter in the

Council, and it was still refusing to enter into any discussions on the
subject when, on 29 November 1979,the United States filed the present
Application submitting itsclaims to the Court. It is clear that on that date
there existed adispute arising out ofthe interpretationor application of the
Vienna Conventions and thus one falling within the scope of Article 1of
the Protocols.

48. Articles II and III of the Protocols, it isrue, provide that within a
period of two months after one party has notified its opinion to the other
that a dispute exists, the parties may agree either: (a)"to resort not to the
International Court of Justice but to an arbitral tribunal", or(b)"to adopt
a conciliation procedure before resorting to the International Court of
Justice". The terms of Articles II and III however, when read in conjunc-
tion with those of Article 1and with the Preamble to the Protocols, make it
crystal clear that they are not to be understood as laying down a precon-
dition of the applicability of the precise and categorical provision con-
tained in Article 1establishing the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Court in
respect of disputes arising out of the interpretation or application of the26 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

Viema Convention in question. Articles II and III provide only that, asa
substitute for recourse to the Court, the parties may agree upon resort
either to arbitration or to conciliation. It follows,first,that Articles II and
III have no application unless recourse to arbitration or conciliation has
been proposed by one of the parties to the dispute and the other has

expressed its readiness to consider the proposal. Secondly, it follows that
only then may the provisions in those articles regarding a two months'
period come into play, and function asa time-limit upon the conclusion of
the agreement as to the organization of the alternative procedure.

49. In the present instance, neither of the parties to the dispute pro-
posed recourse to either of the two alternatives, before the filing of the
Application or at any time aftenvards. On the contrary, the Iranian
authorities refused to enter into any discussion of the matter with the
United States, and this could only be understood by the United States as
ruling out,in limine,any question of arriving at an agreement to resort to
arbitration or conciliationunder Article II or Article III of the Protocols,
instead of recourse tothe Court. Accordingly,when the United States filed
its Application on 29November 1979,it was unquestionably free to have
recourse to Article 1 of the Protocols, and to invoke it as a basis for

establishing the Court'sjurisdiction with respect to its claims under the
Vienna Conventions of 1961 and 1963.

50. However,theUnited Statesalso presents claimsinrespectofalleged
violations by Iran of Articles II, paragraph 4, XIII, XVIII and XIX of the
Treaty of Arnity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights of 1955
between the United States and Iran, which entered into force on 16June
1957. With regard to these claims the United States has invoked para-
graph 2 of Article XXI of the Treaty as the basis for the Court'sjurisdic-
tion. The claims of the United States under this Treaty overlap in con-
siderable measure with its claims under the two Vienna Conventions and
more especially the Convention of 1963. In ths respect, therefore, the
dispute between the United States andIran regarding thoseclaimsisat the

same time a dispute arising out of the interpretation or application of the
Vienna Conventions which falls within Article 1of their Protocols. It was
for this reason that in itsOrder of 15December 1979indicating provi-
sional measures the Court did not find it necessary to enter into the
question whether Article XXI, paragraph 2,of the 1955Treaty might also
have provided a basis for the exerciseof itsjurisdiction in the present case.
But taking into account that Article II, paragraph 4, of the 1955Treaty
provides that "nationals of either High Contracting Party shallreceivethe
most constant protection and security within the territories of the other
High Contracting Party. ..", the Court considers that at the present stage
ofthe proceedings that Treaty has importance inregard to theclaimsof the
United States in respect of the two private individuals said to be held27 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (NDGMENT)

hostage in Iran. Accordingly, the Court willnow consider whether a basis
for the exercise of its jurisdiction with respect to the alleged violations
of the 1955 Treaty may be found in Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the
Treaty.
51. Paragraph 2 of that Article reads :

"Any dispute between the High Contracting Parties as to the inter-
pretation or application of the present Treaty, not satisfactorily
adjusted by diplomacy, shall be submitted to the International Court
of Justice, unless the High Contracting Parties agree to settlement by
some other pacific means."

As previously pointed out, when the United States filed itsApplication on

29 November 1979,its attempts to negotiate with Iran in regard to the
overrunning of its Embassy and detention of itsnationals as hostages had
reached a deadlock, owing to the refusal of the Iranian Government to
enter into any discussion of the matter. ln consequence, there existed at
that date not only a dispute but, beyond any doubt, a "dispute. .. not
satisfactorily adjusted by diplomacy" within the meaning of Article XXI,
paragraph 2,of the 1955Treaty ;and ths dispute comprised, interalia,the
matters that are the subject of the United States' claims under that
Treaty.
52. The provision made in the 1955Treaty for disputes as to its inter-
pretation orapplication to be referred to the Court is similar to the system
adopted in the Optional Protocols to the Vienna Conventions which the
Court has already explained. Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the Treaty
establishes thejurisdiction of the Court as compulsory for such disputes,
unless theparties agree to settlement by some other means. In the present

instance, as in the case of the Optional Protocols, the immediate and total
refusa1 of the Iranian authorities to enter into any negotiations with the
United States excluded in limine any question of an agreement to have
recourse to "some other pacific means" for the settlement of the dispute.
Consequently, under the terms of Article XXI, paragraph 2, the United
States was free on 29 November 1979 to invoke its provisions for the
purpose of referring its claims against Iran under the 1955Treaty to the
Court. While that Article does not provide in express terms that either
party may bring a case to the Court by unilateral application, it isevident,
as the United States contended inits Memorial, that this iswhat theparties
intended. Provisions drawn in similar terms are very common in bilateral
treaties of arnity or of establishment, and the intention of the parties in
accepting such clauses is clearly to provide for such a right of unilateral
recourse to the Court, in the absence of agreement to employ some other
pacific means of settlement.

53. The point has also been raised whether, having regard to certain
counter-measures taken by the United States vis-à-visIran, it isopen to the
United States to rely on the Treaty of Arnity, Economic Relations, andConsular Rights in the present proceedings. However, al1the measures in
question were taken by the United States after the seizure of its Embassy
by an armed group and subsequent detention of its diplomatic and con-
sular staff as hostages. They were measures taken in response to what the
United States believed to be grave and manifest violations of international
lawby Iran, includingviolations of the 1955Treaty itself.In any event,any
alleged violation of the Treaty by either party could not have the effect of
precludingthat party from invoiung the provisions of the Treaty concern-
ing pacific settlement of disputes.

54. No suggestion has been made by Iran that the 1955Treaty was not
inforce on 4 November 1979when the United States Embassywasoverrun
and its nationals taken hostage, or on 29 November when the United
States subrnitted the dispute to the Court. The very purpose of a treaty of
amity, and indeed of a treaty of establishment, is to promote friendly
relations between the two countnes concerned, and between their two
peoples, more especially by mutual undertakings to ensure the protection
and secunty of their nationals in each other's terntory. It ispreciselywhen

difficulties arise that the treaty assumes its greatest importance, and the
whole object of Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the 1955 Treaty was to
establish themeans for arriving at a friendly settlement of such difficulties
by the Court or by other peaceful means. It would, therefore, be incom-
patible with the whole purpose of the 1955Treaty if recourse to the Court
under Article XXI, paragraph 2, were now to be found not to be open to
the parties precisely at the moment when such recourse was most needed.
Furthermore, although the machinery for the effective operation of the
1955Treaty has, no doubt, now been impaired by reason of diplomatic
relations between the two countries having been broken off by the United
States, its provisions remain part of the corpus of law applicable between
the United States and Iran.

55. The United Stateshas further invoked Article 13of the Convention
of 1973on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimesagainst Internation-
ally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, as a basis for the
exercise of the Court's jurisdiction with respect to its claims under that
Convention. The Court does not, however,find it necessary in the present
Judgment to enter into the question whether, in the particular circum-
stances of the case,Article 13of that Convention provides a basis for the
exercise of the Court's jurisdiction with respect to those claims.

56. The principal facts matenal for theCourt's decision on the merits of
thepresent casehave been setout earlier in thisJudgment. Thosefacts have

29to be looked at by the Court from two points of view. First, it must
determine how far, legally, the acts in question may be regarded as im-
putable tothe Iranian State. Secondly, it must consider their compatibility

or incompatibility with the obligations of Iran under treaties in force or
under any other rules of international law that may be applicable. The
events which are the subject of the United States' claims fa11into two
phases which it will be convenient to examine separately.

57. The first of these phases covers the armed attack on the United
States Embassy by militants on 4 November 1979,the overmnning of its

premises, the seizure of its inmates as hostages, the appropriation of its
property and archives and the conduct of the Iranian authorities in the face
of those occurrences. The attack and the subsequent overrunning, bit by
bit, of the whole Embassy premises, was an operation which continued
over a period of somethree hours without any body of police, any rnilitary
unit or any Iranian official intervening to try to stop or impede it from

being carried through to its completion. The result of the attack was
considerable damage to the Embassy premises and property, the forcible
opening and seizure of its archives, the confiscation of the archives and
other documents found in the Embassy and, most grave of all, the seizure
by force of its diplomaticand consular personnel as hostages, together with
two United States nationals.
58. No suggestion has been made that the militants, when they executed

their attack on the Embassy,had any form of officia1statusas recognized
"agents" or organs of the Iranian State. Their conduct in mounting the
attack, overrunning the Embassy and seizing its inmates as hostages can-
not, therefore, be regarded as imputable to that State on that basis. Their
conduct might be considered as itself directly imputable to the Iranian
State only if it were established that, in fact. on the occasion in question the
militants acted on behalf on the State, having been charged by some

competentorgan of the Iranian Stateto carry out a specific operation. The
information before the Court does not, however, suffice to establish with
the requisite certainty the existence at that time of such a link between the
militants and any competent organ of the State.
59. Previously, it is true, the religious leader of the country, the Aya-
tollah Khomeini, had made several public declarations inveighng against

the United States as responsiblefor al1his country's problems. In sodoing,
it would appear, the Ayatollah Khomeini was giving utterance to the
general resentment felt by supporters of the revolution at theadmission of
the former Shah to the United States. The information before the Court
alsoindicates that a spokesman forthe militants, in explaining their action
aftenvards, did expressly refer to a message issued by the Ayatollah
Khomeini, on 1November 1979.In that message the Ayatollah Khomeini

had declared that it was "up to the dear pupils, students and theological
students to expand with al1their might their attacks against the United
States and Israel, so they may force the United States toreturn the deposed
and criminal shah, and to condemn this great plot''(that is,aplot to stir updissension between themain streams of Islamic thought). In theviewof the
Court, however, it would be going too far to interpret such general decla-
rations of the Ayatollah Khomeini to the people or students of Iran as
amounting to an authorization from the State to undertake the specific
operation of invading and seizing the United States Embassy. To do so
would, indeed,conflict with the assertions of the militants themselveswho
arereported to have claimed credit for having devised and carried out the
plan to occupy the Embassy. Again, congratulations after the event, such
as those reportedly telephoned to themilitants by theAyatollah Khomeini
on the actual evening of the attack, and other subsequent statements of
official approval, though hghly significant in another contextshortly tobe
considered, do not alter the initially independent and unofficial character
of the militants' attack on the Embassy.
60. The first phase, here under examination, of the events complained
of alsoincludes the attacks on the United StatesConsulates at Tabrizand
Shiraz. Like the attack on the Embassy, they appear to have been executed

by militants not having an officialcharacter, and successfulbecause oflack
of sufficient protection.
61. The conclusion just reached by the Court, that the initiation of the
attack on the United States Embassy on 4 November 1979,and of the
attacks on the Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz the following day, cannot
be considered asin itself imputableto the Iranian State does not mean that
Iran is, in consequence, free of any responsibility in regard to those
attacks ; for its own conduct was in conflict with its international obliga-
tions. By a number of provisions of the Vienna Conventions of 1961and
1963,Iran wasplaced under the most categorical obligations, asareceiving
State, to take appropriate steps to ensure the protection of the United
States Embassy and Consulates, their staffs,their archives, their means of
communication and the freedom of movement of the members of their
staffs.

62. Thus, after solemnlyproclaimingthe inviolability of the premises of
a diplornatic mission, Article 22 of the 1961 Convention continues in
paragraph 2 :
"ThereceivingState is underaspecial dutytotake al1appropriatesteps
toprotect thepremises of the mission against any intrusion or damage
and to prevent anydisturbance of the peace of the mission or impair-
ment of its dignity." (Emphasis added.)

So, too, after proclaiming that the person of a diplornatic agent shall be
inviolable, and that heshallnot beliable toany form of arrest or detention,
Article 29 provides :

"The receiving State shall treat hm with due respect and shall take
al1 appropriate steps to prevent any attack on his person, freedom or
dignity."(Emphasis added.)
The obligation of a receiving State to protect the inviolability of the31 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

archives and documents of a diplomatic mission is laid down in Article 24,
which specifically provides that they are to be "inviolable at any time and
wherever they may ben. Under Article 25 it is required to "accord full

facilities for the performance of the functions of the mission", under
Article 26 to "ensure to al1members of the mission freedom of movement
and travel in its territory", and under Article 27to "permit and protect free
communication on the part of the mission for al1 official purposes".
Analogous provisions are to be found in the 1963 Convention regarding
the privileges and immunities of consular missions and their staffs (Art. 31,

para. 3,Arts. 40,33,28,34 and 35).In the viewof the Court, the obligations
of the Iranian Government here in question are not merely contractual
obligations established by the Vienna Conventions of 1961and 1963,but
also obligations under general international law.

63. The facts set out in paragraphs 14 to 27 above establish to the

satisfaction of the Court that on 4 November 1979 the Iranian Govern-
ment failed altogether to take any "appropriate steps" to protect the
premises, staff and archives of the United States' mission againstattack by
the militants, and to takeany stepseither to prevent this attack or tostop it
before it reached itscompletion. They also show that on 5 November 1979

the Iranian Government similarly failed to take appropriate steps for the
protection of the United States Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz. In addi-
tion they show, in the opinion of the Court, that the failure of theanian
Government to take such steps was due to more than mere negligence or
lack of appropriate means.
64. The total inaction of the Iranian authorities on that date in face of

urgent and repeated requests for help contrasts very sharply with its
conduct on several other occasions of a similar kind. Some eight months
earlier, on 14 February 1979, the United States Embassy in Tehran had
itself been subjected to the armed attack mentioned above (paragraph 14),
in the course of which theattackershad taken theAmbassador and his staff

prisoner. On that occasion, however, a detachment of Revolutionary
Guards, sent by the Government, had arrived promptly, together with a
Deputy Prime Minister, and had quickly succeeded in freeing the Ambas-
sador and his staff and restoring the Embassy to him. On 1March 1979,
moreover, the Prime Minister of Iran had sent a letter expressing deep
regret at the incident, giving an assurance that appropriate arrangements

had been made to prevent any repetition of such incidents, and indicating
the willingness of his Government to indemnify the United States for the
damage. On 1November 1979, only three days before the events which
gave rise to the present case, the Iranian police intervened quickly and
effectively to protect the United States Embassy when a large crowd of
demonstrators spent several hours marching up and down outside it.

Furthermore, on other occasions in November 1979 and January 1980,
invasions or attempted invasions of other foreign embassies in Tehran
were frustrated or speedily terminated.
65. A similar pattern of facts appears in relation to consulates. InFebruary 1979,at about the same time as the first attack on the United
States Embassy, attacks were made by demonstrators on its Consulates in
Tabriz and Shiraz ; but the Iranian authorities then took the necessary
steps to clear them of the demonstrators. On the other hand, the Iranian
authorities took no actionto prevent the attack of 5 November 1979,orto
restore the Consulates to the possession of the United States. In contrast,
when on the next day militants invaded the Iraqi Consulate in Kerman-
shah, prompt steps were taken by the Iranian authorities to secure their
withdrawal from the Consulate. Thus in this case, the Iranian authorities
and police took the necessary steps to prevent and check the attempted
invasion or return the premises to their rightful owners.

66. As to the actualconduct of the Iranian authorities when faced with
the events of 4 November 1979.the information before the Court estab-
lishes that, despite assurances previously given by them to the United
States Government and despite repeated and urgent calls for help, they
took no apparent steps either to prevent the militants from invading the
Embassy or to persuade or to compel them to withdraw. Furthermore,
after the militants had forced an entry into the prernises of the Embassy,
the Iranian authorities made no effort to compel or even to persuade them
to withdraw from the Embassy and to free the diplomatic and consular
staff whom they had made prisoner.

67. Thisinaction of the Iranian Government by itself constituted clear
and serious violation of Iran's obligations to the United States under the
provisions of Article 22,paragraph 2, and Articles 24,25,26, 27and 29of
the 1961Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, and Articles 5and
36 of the 1963Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. Similarly, with
respect to the attacks on the Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz, the inaction
of the Iranian authorities entailed clear and serious breaches of its obli-
gations under the provisions of several further articles of the 1963Con-
vention on Consular Relations. So far as concerns the two private United
States nationals seized as hostages by the invadingmilitants, that inaction

entailed, albeit incidentally, a breach of its obligations under Article II,
paragraph 4, of the 1955Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Con-
sular Rights which, in addition to the obligations of Iran existing under
general international law,requires theparties to ensure "the most constant
protection and security" to each other's nationals in their respective ter-
ritones.

68. The Court is therefore led inevitably to conclude, in regard to the
first phase of the events which has so far been considered, that on 4 No-
vember 1979 the Iranian authorities :

(a) were fully aware of their obligations under the conventionsin force to
take appropriate steps to protect the prernises of the United States
Embassy and its diplomatic and consular staff from any attack
and from any infringement of their inviolability, and to ensure the DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)
33

security of such other persons as might be present on the said
premises ;
(b) were fully aware, as a result of theappeals forhelp made by the United
States Embassy, of the urgent need for action on their part ;

(c) had the means at their disposa1 to perform their obligations ;
(d) completely failed to comply with these obligations.

Similarly, the Court is led to conclude that the Iranian authorities were
equally aware of their obligations to protect the United States Consulates
atTabriz and Shiraz, and of the need for action on their part,and similarly
failed to use the means which were at their disposa1to comply with their
obligations.

69. The second phase of the events which are the subject of the United
States' claimscomprisesthe whole seriesof facts which occurred following
the completion of the occupation of the United States Embassy by the
militants, and the seizure of the Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz. The
occupation having taken place and the diplomatic and consular personnel
of the United States' mission having been taken hostage, the action
required of the Iranian Government by the Vienna Conventions and by
general international lawwas manifest. Itsplain duty was at once to make
every effort, and to take every appropriate step, to bring these flagrant

infringements of the inviolability of the premises, archives and diplomatic
and consular staff of the United States Embassy to a speedyend, to restore
the Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz to United States control, and in
general to re-establish the status quo and to offer reparation for the
damage.

70. No such step was, however, taken by the Iranian authorities. At a
press conference on 5 November the Foreign Minister, Mr. Yazdi, con-
ceded that "according to international regulations the Iranian Govern-
ment isdutybound to safeguard the lifeand property of foreignnationals".
But he madeno mention of Iran's obligation to safeguard the inviolability
of foreign embassies and diplomats ;and heended by announcing that the
action of the students "enjoys the endorsement and support of the gov-

ernment, because America herself is responsible for this incident". As to
the Prime Minister, Mr. Bazargan, he does not appear to have made any
statement on the matter before resigning his office on 5 November.

71. In any event expressions of approval of the take-over of the Em-
bassv,,and indeed also of the Consulates at Tabrizand Shiraz. bv militants
came immediately from numerous Iranian authorities, includini religious,
judicial, executive, police and broadcasting authorities. Above all, the
Ayatollah Khomeini himself made crystal clear the endorsement by the
State both of the take-over of the Embassy and Consulates and of the34 DlPLOMATlC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

detention of the Embassy staff as hostages. At a reception in Qom on
5 November. the Ayatollah Khomeini left his audience in no doubt as to
his approval of the action of the militants in occupying the Embassy. to
which he said they had resorted "because they saw that the shah was

allowed in America". Saying that he had been informed that the "centre
occupied byour young men. . . has been a lair of espionage and plotting",
he asked how the young people could be expected "simply to remain idle
and witness al1 these things". Furthermore he expressly stigmatized as
"rotten roots" those in Iran who were "hoping we would mediate and tell
theyoung people to leave this place". The Ayatollah's refusal to order "the

young people" to put an end to their occupation of the Embassy, or the
militants in Tabnz and Shiraz to evacuate the United States Consulates
there, must have appeared the more significant when. on 6 November. he
instructed "the young people" who had occupied the Iraqi Consulate in
Kermanshah that they should leave it as soon as possible. The true sig-
nificance of this was only reinforced when, next day,he expressly forbade

members of the Revolutionary Council and al1responsible officials to meet
the special representatives sent by President Carter to try and obtain the
release of the hostages and evacuation of the Embassy.

72. At any rate, thus fortified in their action, the militants at the

Embassy at once went one step farther. On 6 November they proclaimed
that the Embassy, which they too referred to as "the U.S. centre of plots
and espionage", would remain under their occupation. and that they were
watching "most closely" the members of thediplomatic staff taken hostage
whom they called "U.S. mercenaries and spies".

73. The seal of official government approval was finally set on this
situation by a decree issued on 17November 1979by the Ayatollah Kho-
meini. His decreebegan with the assertion that theAmerican Embassywas
"a centre of espionage and conspiracy" and that "those people who
hatched plots against our Islamic movement in that place do not enjoy
internationaldiplomatic respect". He went on expressly to declare that the

premises of the Embassy and the hostages would remain as they were until
the United Stateshad handed over theformer Shah for trial and returned
his property to Iran.Thisstatement of policy the Ayatollah qualified only
to the extent of requesting the militants holding the hostages to "hand over
the blacks and the women, if it is proven that they did not spy, to the
Ministry of ForeignAffairs sothat theymaybe immediately expelled from

Iran". As to the rest of the hostages, he made the Iranian Government's
intentions al1too clear :

"The noble Iranian nation willnot givepermission for the release of
the rest of them. Therefore, the rest of them will be under arrest until
the American Government acts according to the wish of the
nation."35 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

74. The policy thus announced by the Ayatollah Khomeini, of main-
taining the occupation of the Embassy and the detention of its inmates as
hostages for the purpose of exerting pressure on the United States Gov-
ernment was complied with by other Iranian authorities and endorsed by

them repeatedly in statements made in vanous contexts. The result of that
policy was fundamentally to transform the legal nature of the situation
created by the occupation of the Embassy and the detention of its diplo-
matic and consular staff as hostages. The approval given to these facts by
the Ayatollah Khomeini and other organs of the Iranian State, and the
decision to perpetuate them, translated continuing occupation of the

Embassy and detention of the hostages into acts of that State. The mili-
tants, authors of the invasion and jailers of the hostages, had now become
agents of the Iranian State for whose acts the State itself was internation-
ally responsible. On 6 May 1980, the Minister for Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Ghotbzadeh, is reported to have said in a televisioninterview that the

occupation of the United States Embassy had been "done by Ournation".
Moreover, in the prevailing circumstances the situation of the hostages was
aggravated by the fact that their detention by the militants did not even
offer the normal guarantees which might have been afforded by police
and security forces subject to the discipline and the control of official
superiors.

75. During the six months which have elapsed since the situation just
described was created by the decree of the Ayatollah Khomeini, it has
undergone no material change. The Court's Order of 15December 1979
indicating provisional measures, which called for the immediate restora-
tion of the Embassy to the United States and the release of the hostages,
was publicly rejected by the Minister for Foreign Affairs on the following
day and has been ignored by al1 Iranian authorities. On two occasions,

namely on 23 February and on 7 April 1980,the Ayatollah Khomeini laid
it down that the hostages should remain at the United States Embassy
under the control of the militants until the new Iranian parliament should
have assembled and taken a decision as to their fate. His adherenc10 that
policy also made it impossible to obtain his consent to the transfer of the

hostages from the control of the militants to that of the Government or of
the Council of the Revolution. In any event, while highly desirable from
the humanitarian and safety points of view,such a transfer would not have
resulted in any material change in the legal situation, for its sponsors
themselves emphasized that it must not be understood as signifying the
release of the hostages.

76. The Iranian authorities' decision to continue the subjection of the
premises of the United States Embassy to occupation by militants and of
the Embassy staff to detention as hostages, clearly gave rise to repeated

and multiplebreaches of the applicable provisions of the Vienna Conven-tions even more serious than those which arose from their failure to take
any steps to prevent the attacks on the inviolability ofthese premises and
staff.

77. In the first place, thesefacts constituted breaches additional tothose
already committed of paragraph 2 of Article 22 of the 1961Vienna Con-
vention on Diplomatic Relations which requires Iran to protect the pre-
mises of the mission against any intrusion or damage and to prevent any
disturbance of itspeace orimpairment of itsdignity. Paragraphs 1 and 3of
that Article have also been infringed, and continue to be infringed, since
they forbid agents of a receiving State to enter the prernises of a mission
without consent or toundertake anysearch,requisition, attachment or like
measure on the premises. Secondly,they constitutecontinuing breaches of
Article 29of the same Convention whichforbids any arrestordetention of
a diplomatic agent and any attack on his person, freedom or dignity.
Thirdly, the Iranian authorities are without doubt in continuing breach of
the provisions ofArticles 25,26 and 27of the 1961Vienna Convention and
of pertinent provisions of the 1963Vienna Convention concerning facili-
ties for the performance of functions, freedom of movement and commu-
nications for diplomatic and consular staff, as well as of Article 24 of the
former Convention and Article 33 of the latter, which provide for the
absolute inviolability of the archives and documents of diplomatic mis-
sions and consulates. This particular violation has been made manifest to
the world by repeated statements by the militants occupying the Embassy,
who claim to be in possession of documents from the archives, and by

various governmentauthorities,purporting to specifythe contents thereof.
Finally, the continued detention as hostages of the two private individuals
of United Statesnationality entails a renewed breach of theobligations of
Iran under Article II,paragraph 4,of the 1955Treaty ofAmity, Economic
Relations, and Consular Rights.

78. Inevitably, in considering the compatibility or otherwise of the
conduct of the Iranian authorities with the requirements of the Vienna
Conventions, the Court has focussed its attention primanly on the occu-
pation of the Embassy and the treatment of the United Statesdiplomatic
and consular personnel within the Embassy. It is howeverevident that the
question of the compatibility of their conduct with the Vienna Conven-
tions also arises in connection with the treatment of the United States
Chargéd'affaires and two members of his staff in the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs on 4 November 1979 and since that date. The facts of this case
establish to the satisfaction of the Court that on 4 November 1979and
thereafter the Iranian authorities havewithheld from the Chargéd'affaires
and the two members of his staff the necessary protection and facilities to
permit them to leave the Ministry in safety. Accordingly it appears to the
Court that with respect to these three members of the United States'
mission the Iranian authorities have comrnitted a continuing breach of
their obligations under Articles 26 and 29of the 1961Vienna Convention

on Diplomatic Relations. It further appears to the Court that the con-tinuation of that situation over a long period has, in the circumstances,
amounted to detention in the Ministry.

79. The Court moreover cannot conclude its observations on the series
of acts which it has found to be imputable to the Iranian State and to be
patently inconsistent with its international obligations under the Vienna
Conventions of 1961and 1963withoutmention alsoofanotherfact. Thisis
that judicial authorities of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Minister
for ForeignAffairs have frequently voicedor associated themselveswith, a
threat first announced by the militants, of having some of the hostages
submitted to trial before a court or some other body. These threats may at
present merely be acts in contemplation. But the Court considers it
necessary here and now to stress that, if the intention to submit the
hostages to any form of criminal trial or investigation were to be put into
effect, that would constitute agravebreach by Iran of itsobligations under
Article 31,paragraph 1,of the 1961Vienna Convention. This paragraph
states in the most expressterms :"A diplomatic agent shall enjoy irnrnun-
ity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State." Again, if there
were an attempt to compel the hostages to bear witness, a suggestion
renewed at the time of the visit to Iran of the Secretary-General's Com-
mission, Iran would without question be violating paragraph 2 of that
same Article of the 1961 Vienna Convention which provides that :"A

diplomatic agent is not obliged to give evidence as a witness."

80. The facts of the present case, viewed in the light of the applicable
rules oflaw, thus speak loudly and clearlyofsuccessiveand stillcontinuing
breaches by Iran of its obligations to the United States under the Vienna
Conventions of 1961and 1963,as wellas under the Treaty of 1955.Before
drawing from this finding the conclusions which flow from it, in terms of
the international responsibility of the Iranian State vis-à-vis the United
States of America, the Court considers that it should examine onefurther
point. The Courtcannot overlook the fact that on the Iranian side,inoften
imprecise terms, the idea has been put fonvard that the conduct of the
Iranian Government, at the time of the events of 4 November 1979and
subsequently, might be justified by the existence of special circum-
stances.
81. In his letters of 9 December 1979and 16March 1980,as previously
recalled, Iran's Minister for Foreign Affairs referred to the present case as
only "a marginal and secondary aspect of an overall problem". This
problem, he maintained, "involves, inter alia, more than 25 years of con-
tinual interference by the United States in the interna1affairs of Iran, the

shameless exploitation of our country, and numerous crimes perpetrated
against the Iranian people, contraryto and inconflict with al1international
and humanitarian norms". In the first of the two letters he indeed singled
out amongst the "crimes" which he attributed to the United States an
alleged complicity on the part of the Central Intelligence Agency in the
coup d'étatof 1953and in the restoration of the Shah to the throne of Iran.Invoking these alleged crimes of the United States, the Iranian Foreign
Minister took the position that theUnited States' Application could not be
examinedby the Court divorced from its proper context, which heinsisted
was "the whole political dossier of the relations between Iran and the
United States over the last 25 years".
82. The Court must howeverobserve, first of all,that thematters alleged
in the Iranian Foreign Minister's lettersof9 December 1979and 16March
1980are of a kind whch, if invoked in legal proceedings, must clearly be
established to the satisfaction of the tribunal withal1the requisite proof.
The Court, in its Order of 15 December 1979, pointed out that if the
Iranian Government considered the alleged activities of the United States
in Iran legally to have a close connection with the subject-matter of the

Application it was open to Iran to present its own case regarding those
activities to the Court by way of defence to the United States' claims.The
Iranian Government, however,didnot appear before theCourt. Moreover,
even in his letter of 16March 1980,transmitted to the Court some three
months after the issue of that Order, the Iranian Foreign Minister did not
furnish the Court with any further information regarding the alleged
crirninal activities of the United States in Iran, or explain on what legal
basis he considered these allegations to constitute a relevant answer tothe
United States' claims. The large body of information submitted by the
United States itself to the Court includes, it is true, some statements
emanating from Iranian authorities or from the militants in whch refer-
ence is made to alleged espionage and interference in Iran by the United
Statescentred upon its Embassy in Tehran. These statements are, however,
of the same general character as the assertions of allegedcriminal activities
of the United States contained in the Foreign Minister's letters, and are
unsupported by evidence furnished by Iran before the Court. Hence they
do not provide abasis on which the Court could formajudicial opinion on
the truth or othenvise of the matters there alleged.

83. In any case, even if the alleged criminal activities of the United
States in Iran could be considered as havingbeen established, the question
would remain whether they could be regarded by the Court asconstituting
ajustification of Iran's conduct and thus a defence to the United States'

claims in the present case. The Court, however, is unable to accept that
they can be so regarded. This isbecause diplomatic law itself provides the
necessary means of defence against, and sanction for, illicit activities by
members of diplomatic or consular missions.

84. The Vienna Conventions of 1961and 1963contain express provi-
sions to meet the casewhen members of an embassy staff, under the cover
of diplomatic privileges and immunities, engage in such abuses of their
functions as espionageor interference in the interna1affairs of the receiv-
ing State.It is precisely with the possibility of such abuses in contempla-
tion that Article 41,paragraph 1,of the Vienna Convention on DiplomaticRelations, and Article 55, paragraph 1,of the Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations, provide

"Without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is theduty
of al1persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the
laws and regulations of the receiving State.They also have a duty not
to interfere in the internal affairs of that State."

Paragraph 3 of Article 41 of the 1961 Convention further States : "The
prernises of the mission must not be used in any manner incompatible with

thefunctions of the missions ...": an analogous provision, with respect to
consular premises is to be found in Article 55, paragraph 2, of the 1963
Convention.
85. Thus, it is for the very purpose of providing a remedy for such
possible abuses of diplomatic functions that Article 9 of the 1961 Con-
vention on Diplomatic Relations stipulates :

"1. The receiving State rnay at any time and without having to
explain its decision, notify the sending State that the head of the
mission or any member of the diplomatic staff of the mission is
persona non grata or that anyother member of the staff of the mission

is not acceptable. In any such case, the sending State shall, as appro-
priate, either recall the person concerned or terminate his functions
with the mission. A person rnay be declared non grata or not accept-
able before arriving in the territory of the receiving State.
2. If the sending State refuses or fails within a reasonable period to
carry out its obligations under paragraph 1of this Article, the receiv-
ing State rnay refuse to recognize the person concerned asa member of

the mission."

The 1963 Convention contains, in Article 23, paragraphs 1 and 4, analo-

gous provisions in respect of consular officers and consular staff. Para-
graph 1of Article 9of the 1961Convention, and paragraph 4 of Article 23
of the 1963 Convention, take account of the difficulty that rnay be ex-
perienced in practice of proving such abuses in every case or, indeed, of
determining exactly when exercise of the diplomatic function, expressly
recognized in Article 3 (1) (d) of the 1961Convention, of "ascertaining by
al1lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State" rnay
be considered as involving such acts as "espionage" or "interference in

internal affairs". The way inwhichArticle 9,paragraph 1,takes account of
any such difficulty is by providing expressly in its opening sentence that
the receiving State rnay "at any time and without having to explain its
decision" notify the sending State that any particular member of its dip-
lomatic mission is ')ersona non grata" or "not acceptable" (and similarly
Article 23, paragraph 4,of the 1963Convention provides that "the receiv-
ing State is not obliged to give to the sending State reasons for its de-cision"). Beyond that remedy for dealing with abuses of the diplomatic
function by individual members of a mission, a receiving State has in its
hands a more radical remedy if abuses of their functions by members of a
mission reach serious proportions.This isthe power whicheveryreceiving
State has, at its own discretion, to break off diplomatic relations with a

sending State and to cal1 for the immediate closure of the offending
mission.
86. The rules of diplomatic law, in short, constitute a self-contained
régime which,on the one hand, lays down the receivingState'sobligations
regarding the facilities, privileges and immunities to be accorded to dip-
lomatic missions and,on the other, foresees their possible abuse by mem-
bers of the mission and specifies the means at the disposa1of the receiving
Statetocounter any such abuse. These means are, by their nature, entirely
efficacious, for unless the sending State recalls the member of the mission
objected to forthwith, the prospect of the almost immediate loss of lus
privileges and immunities, because of thewithdrawal by the receivingState
of his recognition as a member of the mission, willin practice compel that
person, in his own interest, to depart at once. But the principle of the
inviolability of the persons of diplomatic agents and the premises of
diplomatic missions isone of the veryfoundations of this long-established
régime,to theevolution ofwhich the traditions of Islam madeasubstantial

contribution. The fundamental character of the principle of inviolability
is,moreover,stronglyunderlined by the provisions ofArticles 44and 45of
the Convention of 1961(cf. also Articles 26 and 27 of the Convention of
1963). Even in the case of armed conflict or in the case of a breach in
diplomatic relations those provisions require that both the inviolability of
the members of a diplomatic mission and of the premises, property and
archives of the mission must be respected by the receivingState.Naturally,
the observance of tlus principle does not mean - and tlus the Applicant
Government expressly acknowledges - that a diplomatic agent caught in
the act of comrnitting an assault orother offence may not, on occasion, be
briefly arrested by the police of the receiving State in order to prevent the
commission of theparticular crime. But such eventualities bear norelation
at al1to what occurred in the present case.
87. In the present case, the Iranian Government did not break off
diplomatic relations with the United States ;and in response to a question
put to him by a Member of the Court, the United States Agent informed

the Court that at no time before the events of 4 November 1979had the
Iranian Government declared, or indicated any intention to declare, any
member of the United States didomatic or consular staff in Tehran Der-
sona non grata. The Iranian Government did not, therefore, employ the
remedies placed at its disposa1by diplomatic law specifically for dealing
with activities of the kind of which it now complains. Instead, it allowed a
group of militants to attack and occupy the United States Embassy by
force, and to seizethe diplomaticand consular staff ashostages ;instead, it
has endorsed that action of those militants and has deliberately main-
tained their occupation of the Embassy and detention of its staff as a41 DIPLOMATlC AND CONSULAR STAFF (NDGMENT)

means of coercing the sending State. It has, at the same time, refused
altogether to discuss this situation with representatives of the United
States. The Court, therefore, can only conclude that Iran did not have

recourse to thenormal and efficacious means at itsdisposal, but resorted to
coercive action against the United States Embassy and its staff.

88. In an address given on 5 November 1979,the Ayatollah Khomeini
traced the origin oftheoperation carried out bythe Islamic militants on the
previous day to the news of the arriva1of the former Shah of Iran in the
United States. That fact may no doubt have been the ultimate catalyst of
the resentment felt in certain circles in Iran and among the Iranian popu-
lation against the former Shah for his alleged misdeeds, and also against
the United StatesGovernment which wasbeingpublicly accused ofhaving
restored him to the throne, of having supported him for many years and of

planning to go on doing so. But whatever be the truth in regard to those
matters, they couldhardly beconsidered ashavingprovided ajustification
for the attack on the United States Embassy and its diplomatic mission.
Whatever extenuation of the responsibility to beattached to the conduct of
the Iranian authorities may be found in the offence felt by them because of
theadmission of theShahtotheUnited States,that feelingof offencecould
not affect the imperativecharacter of the legalobligations incumbentupon
the Iranian Government which is not altered by a state of diplomatic
tension between the two countries. Stilllesscould a mere refusa1or failure
on thepart of the United Statestoextradite the Shah to Iran beconsidered
to modify the obligations of the Iranian authorities, quite apart from any
legal difficulties, in intemal or international law, there rnight be in acced-
ine to such a reauest for extradition.
u
89. ~ccordin~i~, the Court finds that no circumstances exist in the
present case which are capable of negativing the fundamentally unlawful
character of theconduct pursued by the Iranian State on4 November 1979
and thereafter. This finding does not however exclude the possibility that
some of the circumstances alleged, if duly established, may later be found
to have some relevance in determining the consequences of the responsi-
bility incurred by the Iranian State with respect to that conduct, although
they could not be considered to alter its unlawful character.

90. On the basis of the foregoing detailed examination of the merits of
the case, the Court finds that Iran, bycornrnitting successiveand continu-
ing breaches of the obligations laid upon it by the Vienna Conventions
of 1961 and 1963on Diplomatic and Consular Relations, the Treaty of
Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights of 1955, and the ap-
plicable rules of general international law, has incurred responsibility
towards the United States. Asto the consequences of this finding, itclearlyentails an obligation on the part of the Iranian State to make reparation for
the injury thereby caused to the United States. Since however Iran's
breaches of its obligations are still continuing, the form and amount of
such reparation cannot be determined at the present date.
91. At the same time the Court finds itself obliged to stress the cumu-
lative effect of Iran's breaches of its obligations when taken together. A

marked escalation of these breaches can be seen to have occurred in the
transition from the failure on the part of the Iranian authorities to oppose
the armed attack by themilitants on 4 November 1979and their seizure of
the Embassy premises and staff, to the almost irnmediate endorsement by
those authonties of the situation thus created, and then to their maintain-
ing deliberately for many months the occupation of the Embassy and
detention of its staff by a group of armed militants acting on behalf of the
State for the purpose of forcing the United States to bow to certain
demands. Wrongfully to deprive human beings of their freedom and to
subject them to physical constraint in conditions of hardship is in itself
manifestly incompatible with the principles of the Charter of the United
Nations, as well as with the fundamental principles enunciated in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. But what has above al1to be
emphasized is the extent and seriousness of the conflict between the
conduct of the Iranian Stateand its obligations under the whole corpus of
the international rules of which diplomatic and consular lawiscomprised,
rules the fundamental character of which the Court must here again
strongly affirm. In its Order of 15December 1979,the Court madeapoint
of stressing that the obligations laid on States by the two Vienna Con-
ventions are of cardinal importance for the maintenance of good relations

between States in the interdependent world of today. "There is no more
fundamental prerequisitefortheconduct of relations between States", the
Court there said, "than the inviolability of diplomatic envoys and embas-
sies, so that throughout hstory nations of al1creeds and cultures have
observed reciprocal obligations for that purpose." The institution of
diplomacy, the Court continued, hasproved tobe "an instrument essential
for effective CO-operation in the international community, and for en-
abling States, irrespective of their diffenng constitutional and social
systems, to achieve mutual understanding and to resolve their differences
by peaceful means" (I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 19).
92. Itis a matter of deep regret that the situation which occasioned
those observations has not been rectified since they were made. Having
regard to their importance the Court considers itessential toreiterate them
in the present Judgment. The frequency with which at the present time the
principles of international law governing diplomatic and consular rela-
tions are set at naught by individuals or groups of individuals is already
deplorable. But this case is unique and of very particular gravity because
here it is not only private individuals or groups of individuals that have
disregarded and setat naught theinviolability ofaforeignembassy, but the
government of the receivingState itself.Therefore in recalling yet again the
extreme importance of the principles of lawwhichit iscalledupon toapplyin the present case, the Court considers it to be its duty to draw the
attention of the entire international community, of which Iran itself has
been amember sincetimeimmemorial, to theirreparableharm that maybe

caused by events of thekind now before the Court. Sucheventscannot fail
to undermine the edifice of law carefully constructed by mankind over a
period of centuries, the maintenance of which is vital for the security and
well-being of the complex international comrnunity of the present day, to
which it is more essential than ever that the rules developed to ensure the
ordered progress of relations between its members should be constantly
and scrupulously respected.

93. Before drawing theappropriate conclusions fromitsfindings on the
merits in this case, the Court considers that it cannot let pass without
comment the incursion into the territory of Iran made by United States
rnilitary units on 24-25 April 1980,an account of whch has been given
earlier in ths Judgment (paragraph 32). No doubt the United States
Govemment mayhave had understandable preoccupations with respect to
the well-being of its nationals held hostage in its Embassy for over five
months. No doubt also the United States Government may have had
understandable feelings of frustration at Iran's long-continued detention
of thehostages, notwithstanding tworesolutions of the SecurityCouncil as

well as the Court's own Order of 15December 1979calling expressly for
their immediate release. Nevertheless, in the circumstances of the present
proceedings, the Court cannot fail to express its concem in regard to the
United States' incursion into Iran. When, as previously recalled, this case
had become ready for hearing on 19 February 1980, the United States
Agent requested the Court, owing to the delicate stage of certain negotia-
tions, to defer settinga date for the hearings. Subsequently, on 11March,
the Agent informed the Court of the United States Govemment's anxiety
to obtain an earlyjudgment on the merits of the case. The hearings were
accordingly held on 18, 19and 20 March, and the Court was in course of
preparing thepresentjudgment adjudicatingupon theclaims oftheUnited
States against Iran when the operation of 24April 1980took place. The
Court therefore feels bound to observe that an operation undertaken in
those circumstances, from whatever motive, is of a kind calculated to
undermine respect for thejudicial process in international relations ; and
to recall that in paragraph 47, 1 B, ofits Order of 15December 1979the
Court had indicated that no action was to be taken by either party which
might aggravate the tension between the two countries.
94. At the sametime,however,the Court mustpoint out that neither the
question of thelegalityof the operation of24 April1980, under theCharter
of the United Nations and under general international law, nor any pos-
siblequestion of responsibility flowingfrom it, isbefore theCourt. It must

also point out that this question can have no beanng on the evaluation ofthe conduct of the Iranian Government over six months earlier, on 4 No-
vember 1979,whch is the subject-matter of the United States' Applica-
tion. It follows that the findings reached by the Court in this Judgment are
not affected by that operation.

95. For these reasons,
THECOURT,

1. By thirteen votes to two,
Decides that the Islamic Republic of Iran, by the conduct which the

Court has set out in this Judgment, has violated in several respects, and is
stillviolating, obligations owed byit to the United States ofAmerica under
international conventions in force between the two countries, as well as
under long-established rules of general international law ;

IN FAVOUR : PresidentSir HurnphreyWaldock ;Vice-President Elias;Judges
Forster,Gros, Lachs,NagendraSingh,Ruda,Mosler,Oda,Ago,El-Enan,
Sette-Camaraand Baxter.
AGAINST :Judges Morozovand Tarazi.

2. By thirteen votes to two,

Decides that the violations of these obligations engage the responsibility
of the Islamic Republic of Iran towards the United States of America
under international law ;

IN FAVOUR : PresidentSirHurnphreyWaldock ;Vice-President Elias;Judges
Forster,Gros, Lachs,NagendraSingh,Ruda, Mosler,Oda,Ago,El-Enan,
Sette-Carnaraand Baxter.
AGAINST :Judges Morozovand Tarazi.

3. Unanimously,

Decides that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran must
immediatelytake al1steps to redress the situation resulting from theevents
of 4 November 1979 and what followed from these events, and to that
end :

(a) must immediately terminate the unlawful detention of the United
States Chargé d'affairesand other diplomatic and consular staff and
other United States nationals now held hostage in Iran, and must
immediately release each and every one and entrust them to the pro-
tecting Power (Article 45 of the 1961Vienna Convention on Diplo-
matic Relations) ;(b) must ensure that al1 the said persons have the necessary means of
leaving Iranian territory, including means of transport ;

(c) must immediately place in the hands of the protecting Power the
premises, property, archives and documents of the United States
Embassy in Tehran and of its Consulates in Iran ;

4. Unanimously,
Decides that no member of the United States diplomatic or consular
staff may be kept in Iran to be subjected to any form ofjudicial proceed-

ings or to participate in them as a witness ;

5. By twelve votes to three,

Decides that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran isunder an
obligation to make reparation to the Government of the United States of
America for the injury caused to the latter by the events of 4 November
1979 and what followed from these events ;

IN FAVOUR : PresidentSirHumphreyWaldock ; Vice-PresidentElias ;Judges
Forster,Gros, Nagendra Singh,Ruda, Mosler,Oda, Ago,El-Erian,Sette-
Camara and Baxter.
AGAINST :Judges Lachs,Morozovand Tarazi.

6. By fourteen votes to one,

Decides that theform and amount of such reparation, failing agreement
between the Parties, shall be settled by the Court, and reserves for this
purpose the subsequent procedure in the case.

IN FAVOUR : PresidentSirHumphreyWaldock ;Vice-PresidentElias ;Judges
Forster, Gros, Lachs,Nagendra Singh,Ruda, Mosler,Tarazi,Oda, Ago,
El-Erian, Sette-Camaraand Baxter.
AGAINST :Judge Morozov.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at
the PeacePalace, The Hague, this twenty-fourth day of May,one thousand
nine hundred and eighty, in three copies,one of whichwill beplaced in the
archives of theCourt, and the others transmitted to theGovernment of the
United States of America and the Government of the Islamic Republic of
Iran, respectively.

(Signed) Humphrey WALDOCK,
President.

(Signed) S. AQUARONE,
Registrar. Judge LACHS appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the
Court.

Judges Mo~ozov and TARAZaIppend dissenting opinions to the Judg-
ment of the Court.

(InitialiedH.W.

(InitialiedS.A.

Bilingual Content

COUR INTERNATIONALEDE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS
ET ORDONNANCES

INTERNATIONALCOURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS
AND ORDERS INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASE CONOERNING UNITED STATES
DIPLOMATE AND CONSULAR STAFF

IN TEHRAN
(UNITED STATES OF AMERICvIRAN)

JUDGMENT OF24MAY 1980

COUR INTERNATIONDEJUSTICE

iRECUEILDES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE RELATIVE AU PERSONNEL

DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE
DES ÉTATS-UNIS À TÉHÉRAN

(ÉTATS-UNIS D'AMÉRIQUE c. IRAN)

.ARRÊTDU 24MAI1980 Official citati:n

United States Diplomatic andConsular Staffin Tehran,
Judgment, 1.C.J. Report1980,p. 3.

Mode officiel de citat:on

Personneldiplomatiqueet consulairedes Etats-UàiTéhéran,
arrêt,CZ.J .ecueil1980,p. 3.

es n u 45
No de vente : 24 MAY 1980

JUDGMENT

CASE C0NCE:RNINGUNITED STATESDIPLOMATIC
AND CONSULAR STAFFIN TEHRAN

(UNITED STATES OFAMERICA v.IRAN)

AFFAIRE RELATIVEAU PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE

ET CONSULAIRE DESÉTATS-UNIS À TÉHÉRAN
(ÉTA'TS-UNISD'AMÉRIQUE C.IRAN)

24 MAI 1980

ARRET INTERNATIONALCOURT OFJUSTICE

1980 YEAR 1980
24 May
GeneralList 24 May 1980
No. 64

CASECONCERNING UNITED STATES

DIPLOMATICAND CONSULAR STAFF

IN TEHRAN

(UNITED STATESOF AMERICA v.IRAN)

Article 53 of the Statu-e Proof of Facts- Admissibility of Proceeding-
Existence of widerpoliticaldispute nobarto legalproceedi-gSecurity Council
proceedingsno restriction onfunctioningof the Cou-tFactfinding commission
established bySecretaryGeneral.
JurisdictionoftheCourt- OptionalProtocolsto ViennaConventionsof1961and
1963 on Diplornaticand ConsularRelations - 1955 Treav of Amity, Economic
Relations andConsularRights (USA/ Iran)- Provisionfor recoursetoCourtunless

parties agreeto "settlementbysome otherpacificmeans- Right tofile unilateral
Application- Whethercounter-measuresa bar to invoking Treatyof Amity.

State responsibility for violationsof Vienna Conventionsof 1961 and 1963 on
DiplornaticandConsularRelations- Action bypersonsnot acting onbehalfofState
- Non-imputabilitythereoftoState- Breachby State ofobligation ofprotect-on
Subsequent decisionto maintain situation so createdon behalf of S-aUseof
situation aseans of coercion.

Questionof special circumstancesaspossiblejustificationof conductof State
Remediesprovidedfor by diplomatielawfor abuses.
Cumulative effect of successive breachesof internationalobliga-ioFunda-
mental characterof internationaldiplomaticand consular law.

JUDGMENT

Present :President Sir HumphreyWALDOC KVice-PresidentELIAS ; Judges
FORSTERG , ROS, LACHS,MOROZOV N,AGENDRA SINGH,RUDA,

MOSLER, TARAZIO , DA,AGO,EL-ERIANS,ETTE-CAMARB AA,XTE;R
Registrar AQUARONE. COUP:INTERNATIONALEDE JUSTICE

ANNÉE 1980 1980
24 mai
24 mai 1980 Rôlno64éral

AFFAIRE RELATIVEAU PERSONNEL

DIPLOPclZATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE

DES ÉITATS-UNIS À TÉHÉRAN

(ÉTATS-UNISD'AMÉRIQUEc. IRAN)

Article 53duStatut- Preuve desfait- Recevabilité del'insta-cL'existence
d'undifférenàpolitiqu,eplus largenefait pas obstàcl'instancejudicia-reLa
procédure devant le Conseile sécurité n'aas d'effet restrictif pour la-Cour
Commission d'établissement des faitsinstituéepar le Secrétaire général.
Compétencede la Cour - Protocolesde signature facultativeaux conventionsde
Vienne de 1961 et 1963 surles relations diplomatiques et consulairesaité
d'amitié,decommerce et de droits consulaires de 1955(Etats-Unisllr-nDis-
position permettant de saisir la Courdudifférendà moins que les parties ne
conviennent((de leréglerpar d'autrs oyenspacifiques-»Droitd'introduireune

requête unilatérale- Les contre-mesures empêchent-elles d'invoquer le traité
d'amitié?
Responsabilitéde I'Etat pour violation des conventions de 1961 e1t963 sur les
relations diplomatiques et consulairesits depersonnes n'agissant ppour le
compte de I'Etat- C'esfaits ne sont pas imputablàsI'Eta- Manquement à
l'obligationdeprotégercommispar I'Etat- Décision ultérieure de perpétaru,
nom de I'Etut,lasituation ainsicr-éUtilisationdelasituationcommemoyende
contrainte.
Problème de lajustification possible du comportement deat dufait de cir-
constances spéciales-Remèdesen casd'abusprévus par le droit diplomatique.

Effet cumulatif de violations successives d'obligations internationales
tèrefondamental du a'roitdiplomatique et consulaire.

Présents: Sir Humphrey WALDOCK P,résiden;M. ELIASV , ice-Préside;t
MM.FORSTEG R,ROSL, ACHS M, OROZON VA, GENDRS AINGHR , UDA,
MOSLER T,ARAZIO , DA,AGO,EL-ERIANS,ETTE-CAMARA, BAXTER,
juges ;M. AQUARONG E,reffier. In the case concerning United States Diplornatic and Consular Staff in Teh-
ran,

between

the United States of America,
represented by

The Honorable Roberts B. Owen, Legal Adviser, Department of State,
as Agent,

H.E. Mrs. Gen Joseph, Arnbassador of the United States of Arnerica to the
Netherlands,
as Deputy Agent,

Mr. Stephen M. Schwebel, Deputy Legal Adviser, Departrnent of State,
as Deputy Agent and Counsel,

Mr. Thomas J. Dunnigan, Counsellor, Embassy of the United States of
Arnerica,

as Deputy Agent,
assisted by

Mr. David H. Srnall, Assistant Legal Adviser, Department of State,
Mr. Ted L. Stein, Attorney-Adviser, Department of State,
Mr. Hugh V. Simon, Jr., Second Secretary, Ernbassy of the United States of
Arnerica,

as Advisers,
and

the Islamic Republic of Iran,

composed as above,

delive the followingJudgment :

1. On 29 Novernber 1979, the Legal Adviser of the Department of State
of the United States of America handed to the Registrar an Application
instituting proceedings against the Islarnic Republic of Iran in respect of a dis-
pute concerning the seizure and holding as hostages of members of the
United States diplomatic and consular staff and certain other United States
nationals.

2. Pursuant to Article40, paragraph 2, of the Statute and Article 38, para-
graph 4, of the Rules of Court, the Application wasat oncecornmunicated to the
Govemrnent of Iran. In accordance with Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute
and Article 42 of the Rules of Court, the Secretary-General of the United
Nations, the Mernbers of the United Nations, and other States entitled to appear
before the Court were notified of the Application.
3. On 29 Novernber 1979, the sarne day as the Application was filed, the En i'affaire relative au personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-Unià
Téhéran,

entre

les Etats-Unis d'Amkrique.
représentéspar

l'honorable Roberts B. Owen, conseiller juridique du département d'Etat,
comme agent,

S. Exc. Mme Geri Joseph, ambassadeur des Etats-Unis d'Amérique auxPays-
Bas,

comme agent adjoint,
M. Stephen M. Schwebel, conseiller juridique adjoint du département d'Etat,

comme agent adjonnt et conseil,
M. Thomas J. Dunriigan, conseiller de I'ambassade des Etats-Unis d'Amé-
rique,

comme agent adjoint,

assistéspar
M. David H. Small, assistant du conseiller juridique du département d'Etat,
M. Ted L. Stein, avocat-conseil au département d'Etat,
M. Hugh V. Simon Jr., deuxième secrétairede I'ambassade des Etats-Unis

d'Amérique,
comme conseillers.

la République islamique d'Iran,

ainsi composée,

rend l'arrêtsuivanr

1. Le 29 novembri: 1979 le conseiller juridique du département d'Etat des
Etats-Unis d'Amériquearemis au Greffier une requêteintroduisant uneinstance
contre la Républiqueislamiqued'Iran au sujetd'un différendrelatif alapriseet à
ladétention enotage!;de membres du personnel diplomatique et consulaire et de
certains autres ressortissants des Etats-Unis.

2. Conformémenta l'article 40,paragraphe 2,du Statut et a l'article 38,para-
graphe 4, du Règlement de la Cour, la requête aétéimmédiatementcommuni-

quéeau Gouvernement de l'Iran. Conformément àl'articl40,paragraphe 3,du
Statutet à l'articl4;'du Règlement, le Secrétaire généradle l'organisation des
Nations Unies, les Membres des Nations Unies et les autres Etats admis àester
devant la Cour ont etéinformésde la requête.
3. Le 29 novembre 1979,jour du dépôt de la requête,le Gouvernement desGovernment of the United States filed in the Registry of the Court a request

for the indication of provisional measures under Article 41 of the Statute
and Article 73 of the Rules of Court. By an Order dated 15 December 1979,
and adopted unanimously, the Court indicated provisional measures in the
case.
4. By an Order made by the President of the Court dated 24 December 1979,
15January 1980was fixed as the time-limit for the filing of the Memorial of the
United States, and 18February 1980as the time-limit for the Counter-Memonal
of Iran, with liberty for Iran, if it appointed an Agent for the purpose of
appearing before the Court and presenting its observations on the case, to apply
for reconsideration of such time-lirnit. The Memorial of the United States was

filed on 15January 1980, within the time-limit prescribed, and was cornmuni-
cated to the Government of Iran ;no Counter-Mernorial was filed by the Gov-
emment of Iran, nor was any agent appointed or any application made for
reconsideration of the time-limit.
5. The case thus became ready for hearing on 19 February 1980, the day
following the expiration of the time-limit fixed for the Counter-Memonal of
Iran. In circumstances explained in paragraphs 41 and 42 below, and after due
notice to the Parties, 18March 1980was fixed as the date for the opening of the
oral proceedings ;on 18,19and 20 March 1980,public hearings wereheld, in the
course of which the Court heard the oral argument of the Agent and Counsel of
the United States ; the Government of Iran was not represented at the hearings.

Questions were addressed to the Agent of the United States by Members of the
Court both during thecourse of the hearings and subsequently, and replieswere
given either orally at the hearings or in writing, in accordance with Article 61,
paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court.
6. On 6 December 1979,the Registrar addressed the notifications provided
for in Article 63 of the Statute of the Court to the States which according to
information supplied by the Secretary-General of the United Nations as de-
positary were parties to one or more of the following Conventions and Pro-
tocols :

(a) the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961 ;
(b) the Optional Protocol to that Convention concerning the Compulsory Set-
tlement of Disputes ;
(c) the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 1963 ;
(d) the Optional Protocol to that Convention concerning the Compulsory Set-

tlement of Disputes ;
(e) the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Inter-
nationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, of 1973.

7. The Court, after ascertaining the viewsof the Government of the United
States on the matter, and affording the Government of Iran the opportunity of
making its views known, decided pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the
Rules of Court that copies of the pleadings and documents annexed should be
made accessible to the public with effect from 25 March 1980.

8. In the course of the wntten proceedings the following submissions were
presented on behalf of the Government of the United States of America :Etats-Unis adéposéau Greffe de la Courune demande en indication de mesures
conservatoires fondée:sur I'article41 du Statut et I'article 73du Règlement.Par
ordonnance du 15décembre1979la Cour, statuant àl'unanimité, a indiquédes
mesures consewatoirirs en l'instance.

4. Par ordonnance du Présidentde la Cour prise le 24 décembre1979,la date

d'expiration des délaisa étéfixée au15janvier 1980pour le dépôtdu mémoire
des Etats-Unis et au 118février1980pour le dépôt du contre-mémoirede l'Iran,
étantentendu que, si l'Iran désignait unagent pour comparaître devant la Cour
et présenter des observations sur l'affaire, il lui serait loisible de demander que
cette dernière date soit reconsidérée.Le mémoiredes Etats-Unis a étédéposéle
15janvier 1980,dans le délai fixé, eta étécommuniqué au Gouvernement de
l'Iran; ce gouvernement n'a pas déposéde contre-mémoireet n'a pas non plus
nommé d'agentni demandé que la date d'expiration soit reconsidérée.

5. L'affaire s'est ainsi trouvée enétatle 19février1980,le lendemain dujour
où expirait le délai fixépour le dépôt du contre-mémoirede 1'Iran. Dans des
circonstancesqui son!:expliquéesauxparagraphes 41et42ci-après, etlesparties
ayant été dûmentavisées, ledébut de la procédure orale a étéfixéau 18mars
1980 ;des audiences publiques ont eu lieu les 18, 19 et 20 mars 1980, durant
lesquelles la Cour a entendu les plaidoiries de l'agent et du conseil des Etats-
Unis ;le Gouvernement de 1'Iran n'étaitpas représenté à ces audiences. Des
membres de la Cour alntadressédesquestions àl'agent desEtats-Unis durant et

aprèsles audiences ;ily a été répondusoit oralement à l'audience soitpar écrit,
conformément à I'article 61,paragraphe 4, du Règlement.

6. Le6 décembre1979leGreffiera adressélanotification prévue à I'article63
du Statut aux Etats qui, selon lesrenseignements fournis par leSecrétairegénéral
de l'organisation des Nations Unies en tantque dépositaire,étaientparties à une
ou plusieurs des conventions et protocoles suivants :

a) la convention de Vienne de 1961sur les relations diplomatiques ;
b) le protocole de signature facultative à cette convention concernant le règle-
ment obligatoire des différends ;
c) la convention de Vienne de 1963sur les relations consulaires ;

d) le protocole de signature facultative à cette convention concernant le règle-
ment obligatoire des différends ;
e) la convention de 1973sur laprévention etlarépressiondesinfractions contre
les personnesjouissant d'une protection internationale, ycompris les agents
diplomatiques.

7. La Cour, après s'être renseignée à ce sujet auprès du Gouvernement
des Etats-Unis et avoir donné au Gouvernement de l'Iran la possibilité de
faire connaître son opinion, a décidé,conformément à I'article 53, paragra-
phe 2, du Règlemerit que des exemplaires des pièces de procédure et des
documents annexés seraient tenus à la disposition du public à dater du
25 mars 1980.
8. Dans la procédureécrite, les conclusionsci-aprèsont étédéposées au nom
du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amérique :in the Application :

"The United States requests the Court to adjudge and declare as fol-
lows :

(a) That the Government of Iran, in tolerating, encouraging, and failing to
prevent and punish theconduct described in the preceding Statement of
Facts, violated its intemational legalobligations to theUnited States as
provided by
- Articles 22,24,25,27,29,31,37 and 47of the Vienna Convention on

Diplomatic Relations,
- Articles 28,31,33,34,36 and 40 of the Vienna Convention on Con-
sular Relations,
- Articles 4and 7of theConvention on the Prevention and Punishment
of Crimes against Intemationally Protected Persons, including Dip-
lomatic Agents, and
- Articles II (4), XIII, XVIII and XIX of the Treaty of Amity, Eco-

nomic Relations, and Consular Rights between theUnited States and
Iran, and
- Articles 2 (3), 2 (4) and 33 of the Charter of the United Nations ;

(b) That pursuant to the foregoing international legal obligations, the

Government of Iran is under a particular obligation imrnediately to
secure the release of al1United Statesnationals currently beingdetained
within the premises of the United States Embassy in Tehran and to
assure that al1such persons and al1other United States nationals in
Tehran are allowed to leave Iran safely ;

(c) That the Government of Iran shall pay to the United States, in its own
right and in the exercise of its right of diplomatic protection of its

nationals, reparation for the foregoing violations of Iran's international
legal obligations to the United States, in a sum to be determined by the
Court ;and
(d) That the Government of Iran subrnit to itscompetent authorities for the
purpose of prosecution those persons responsible for the crimes com-
mitted against the premises and staff of the United States Embassy and
against the premises of its Consulates" ;

in the Memorial :

"The Government of the United States respectfully requests that the
Court adjudge and declare as follows :
(a) that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, in permitting,

tolerating, encouraging, adopting, and endeavouring to exploit, as well
as in failing to prevent and punish, the conduct descnbed in the State-
ment of the Facts, violated its international legal obligations to the
United States as provided by :
- Articles 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29,31, 37,44 and 47 of the Vienna Con-

vention on Diplomatic Relations ;
- Articles 5, 27, 28,31, 33, 34, 35,36, 40 and 72 of the Vienna Con-
vention on Consular Relations :dans la requête :
(<les Etats-Unis demandent à la Cour de dire etjuger :

a) que, en tolérant, en encourageant et en s'abstenant de prévenir etde
réprimerle comportement décritdans I'exposédes faits qui précède, le
Gouvernement de l'Iran a violésesobligationsjuridiques internationales

à l'égarddes ]Etats-Unis telles qu'elles résultent
- desarticles 22,24,25,27,29,3 1,37et 47 de la convention de Vienne
sur les relations diplomatiques,
- des articles 28,3 1,33,34,36 et 40de la convention de Vienne sur les
relations consulaires,
-
des article:^4 et 7 de la convention sur la prévention et la répression
desinfractions contre lespersonnesjouissant d'une protection inter-
nationale, y compris les agents diplomatiques,
- des articles II, paragraphe 4, XIII, XVIII et XIX du traitéd'amitié,
de commerce et de droits consulaires entre les Etats-Unis et
I'lran,
-
des articlt:~2, paragraphes 3 et 4, et 33 de la Charte des Nations
Unies ;
b) que, conformément aux obligationsjuridiques internationales mention-
nées ci-dessus, leGouvernement de l'Iran a l'obligation formelle d'as-
surer lalibération immédiatede tous les ressortissa~ts des Etats-Unisqui

sont actuellenlent détenusdans le bâtiment de i'ambassade des Etats-
Unis à Téhéran etde faire en sorte que toutes ces personnes et tous les
autres ressortissants des Etats-Unis en Iran soient autorisés a quitter
i'Iran en sécurité ;
c) que le Gouvernement de I'lran doit réparation aux Etats-Unis, sur la
base de leur clroit propre et dans l'exercicede leur droit de protection

diplomatique à I'égardde leurs ressortissants, en raison des violations
susmentionnées par 1'Irande ses obligations juridiques internationales
envers les Etats-Unis, le montant devant être déterminépar la Cour ;
d) que le Gouvernement de l'Iran remette aux autorités compétentes ira-
niennesauxfins de poursuites lespersonnes responsables des infractions
commises contre le bâtiment et le ~ersonnel de l'ambassade des Etats-
Unis et contr'ele bâtiment des consulats des Etats-Unis
;
dans le mémoire :

(<LeGouverne:mentdesEtats-Unisprie respectueusement la Courde dire
et juger :

a) que, en permettant, en tolérant,en encourageant, en adoptant, en s'ef-
forçant d'exploiter et en s'abstenant de prévenir etde réprimerle com-
portement décrit dans l'exposédes faits, le Gouvernement de la Répu-
blique islamique d'Iran a violésesobligations juridiques internationales
à l'égarddes Etats-Unis telles qu'elles résultent :
-
des articles 22,24,25,26,27,29,31, 37,44 et 47 de la convention de
Vienne siir les relations diplomatiques,
- des articli:~5, 27, 28,31, 33, 34, 35,36, 40 et 72 de la convention de
Vienne sur les relations consulaires, - Article II (4), XIII, XVIII and XIX of the Treaty of Amity, Eco-
nomic Relations, and Consular Rights between the United States of
Arnerica and Iran ; and
- Articles 2,4 and 7 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including

Diplornatic Agents ;
(b) that, pursuant to the foregoing international legal obligations :

(i) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall immediately

ensure that the premises at the United States Embassy, Chancery
and Consulates are restored to the possession of the United States
authorities under their exclusive control, and shall ensure their
inviolability and effectiveprotection asprovided for by the treaties
in force between the two States, and by general international
law ;
(ii) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall ensure the
irnrnediate release, without any exception, of al1persons of United
States nationality who are or havebeen held in the Ernbassy of the
United States of Arnerica or in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in

Tehran, or who are or have been held as hostages elsewhere, and
afford full protection to al1such persons, in accordance with the
treaties in force between the two States, and with general interna-
tional law ;
(iii) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall, as from that
moment, afford to al1the diplomatic and consular personnel of the
United States the protection, pnvileges and immunities to which
they are entitled under the treaties in force between the two States,
and under general international law,including imrnunity from any
form of criminaljurisdiction and freedom and facilitiestoleavethe
territory of Iran ;

(iv) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall, in affording
the diplornatic and consular personnel of the United States the
protection, privileges and irnmunities to which they are entitled,
including irnrnunity from any form of criminaljurisdiction, ensure
that no such personnel shall be obliged to appear on trial or as a
witness, deponent, source of information, or in any other role, at
any proceedings, whether forrnal or inforrnal, initiated by or with
the acauiescence of the Iranian Government, whether such vro-
ceedings be denominated a 'trial', 'grand jury','international com-
mission' or othenvise ;

(v) the Governrnent of the Islamic Republic of Iran shall submit to its
cornpetent authorities for the purpose of prosecution, or extradite
to the United States, those persons responsible for the crimes
cornmitted againstthe personnel and premises of the United States
Ernbassy and Consulates in Iran ;

(c) that the United States of Arnerica is entitled to the payrnent toit, in its
own right and in the exercise of its right of diplornatic protection of its
nationals held hostage, of reparation by the IslarnicRepublic of Iran for PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 7

-
des articles II, paragraphe 4, XIII, XVIII et XIX du traitéd'amitié,
de commerce et de droits consulaires entre les Etats-Unis et
l'Iran,
- desarticles 2,4 et 7delaconvention sur lapréventionet larépression
desinfractions contre lespersonnesjouissant d'une protection inter-
nationale, :ycompris les agents diplomatiques ;

b) que, conformément aux obligations juridiques internationales mention-
nées ci-dessus ::
i) le Gouvernement de la Républiqueislamique d'Iran doit immédia-

tement fair'een sorte que leslocaux del'ambassade, de lachancellerie
et des consulats desEtats-Unis soient remis en possession des auto-
rités des E.tats-Unis et placés sous leur contrôle exclusif, et doit
assurer leur inviolabilitéet leur protection effective conformément
aux traitésen vigueur entre les deux Etats et au droit international
général ;

ii) le Gouverniement de la République islamique d'Iran doit assurer la
libération immédiateet sans aucune exception de tous les ressortis-
sants des Eltats-Unis qui sont ou ont été détenus à l'ambassade des
Etats-Unis d'Amérique ou au ministère des affaires étrangères à
Téhéran ouquisontouont étédétenue sn otages ailleurs, et accorder
pleine protection à ces personnes conformément aux traités en
vigueur entre les deux Etats et au droit international général ;

iii) le Gouverriement de la Républiqueislamique d'Iran doit désormais
reconnaître à tous les membres du personnel diplomatique et
consulaire des Etats-Unis la protection, les privilègeset les immu-
nités auxquels ilsont droit conformément aux traités en vigueur
entre les deux Etats et au droit international général,notamment
l'immunité: à l'égardde toute forme de juridiction criminelle et la

liberté et les moyens de quitter le territoire iranien;
iv) le Gouverriement de la Républiqueislamique d'Iran doit, en recon-
naissant aiix membres du personnel diplomatique et consulaire des
Etats-Unis la protection, les privilègeset les immunitésauxquels ils
ont droit, notamment l'immunité à l'égardde toute forme de juri-
diction criiminelle,faire en sorte qu'aucun d'eux ne soit contraintde

comparaît:re comme accusé ou comme témoin, déclarant, source
d'information, ou à tout autre titre, dans une instance, officielle ou
non, entarnée par le Gouvernement de l'Iran ou avec son acquies-
cement, quelle que soit la dénomination de cette instance : <pro-
cès >),<(jury d'accusation » ou (commission internationale >),
etc.;
v) leGouvernement de la Républiqueislamique d'Iran doit déféreraux

fins de poiirsuiteà ses autorités compétentesou extrader aux Etats-
Unislesresponsables desinfractions commisescontre lepersonnelet
les locaux. de l'ambassade et des consulats des Etats-Unis en
Iran ;

c) qu'en vertu de leur droit propre et dans l'exercice de leur droit de
protection diplomatique de leurs ressortissants détenus en otages les
Etats-Unis d'Amériqueont droit àceque laRépubliqueislamique d'Iran the violations of the above international legalobligations whichit owes
to the United States, in a sum to be determined by the Court at a
subsequent stage of the proceedings."

9. At the close of the oral proceedings, wntten submissions were filed in the
Registry of the Court on behalf of the Govemment of the United States of
America in accordance with Article 60, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court ; a
copy thereof was transrnitted to the Govemment of Iran. Those submissions
were identical with the submissions presented in the Memorial of the United
States.

10. No pleadings were filed by the Govemment of Iran, which also was not
represented at the oral proceedin~s, andno submissions werethereforepresented
on its behalf. The position of tkat Govemment was, however, defined in two
communications addressed to the Court by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of
Iran ;the first of these was a letter dated 9 December 1979and transmitted by
telegram the same day (the text of which wassetout in fullin the Court's Order of
15December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, pp. 10-11) ; the second was a letter
transmitted by telex dated 16March 1980and received on 17March 1980,the
text of which followedclosely that of the letter of 9 December 1979and reads as
follows :

[Translationfrom French]

"1have the honour to acknowledgereceipt of the telegram conceming the
meeting of the International Court ofJustice to beheld on 17March 1980at
the request of the Government of the United States of Amenca, and to set
forth for you below, once again, the position of the Govemment of the
Islamic Republic of Iran in that respect :

The Govemment of the Islamic Republic of Iran wishes to express its
respect for the International Court of Justice, and for its distinguished
Members, for what they have achieved in the quest for a just and equitable
solution to legal conflicts between States, and respectfully draws the atten-
tion of the Court to the deep-rootedness and the essential character of the
IslamicRevolution of Iran, arevolution of awholeoppressed nation against
its oppressors and their masters, the examination of whose numerous
repercussions is essentially and directly a matter within the national

sovereignty of Iran.
The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran considers that the Court
cannotand shouldnot takecognizance of the casewhich the Govemment of
the United States of America has submitted toit, and in the most significant
fashion,acaseconfined to what iscalled the question of the 'hostagesof the
American Embassy in Tehran'.
For this question only represents a marginal and secondary aspect of an
overall problem, one such that it cannot be studied separately, and which
involves, inter alia, more than 25years of continual interference by the
United States in the intemal affairs of Iran, the shameless exploitation of
Ourcountry, and numerous crimes perpetrated against the Iranian people,
contrary to and in conflict with al1 international and humanitarian

norms.
The problem involved in the conflict between Iran and the United States
isthus not one of the interpretation and the application of the treaties upon leur verse,à raison des violations des obligationsjuridiques intematio-
nales susviséesdont elle est tenue àleur égard,une réparation dont la
Cour déterminera le montant à un stade ultérieur de la procédure. ))
9. A l'issuede la procédureorale, des conclusions écritesont étédéposéesau

Greffe au nom du Goiivemement des Etats-Unis d'Amérique conformément à
l'article 60,paragraphe 2, du Règlement ;copie en a ététransmise au Gouver-
nement de l'Iran. Ces conclusions sont identiques à celles qui figurent dans le
mémoiredes Etats-Uriis.

10. Aucune pièce écriten'a étédéposéepar le Gouvernement de l'Iran et
celui-cine s'estpas fait représenterà la procédureorale ;aucune conclusion n'a

donc étéprésentéeen son nom. Toiitefois, l'attitude de ce gouvernement a été
définie dans deux communications adressées à la Cour par le ministre des
affaires étrangèresd'Iran ; la première consiste enune lettre du 9décembre1979
transmise par télégrammelemême jour, dont le texte intégral estreproduit dans
l'ordonnance de la CoiArdu 15décembre1979(C.I.J. Recueil1979,p. 10-11) ;la
deuxième est une lettre du 16mars 1980transmise par télexet reçue le 17mars
1980, dont le texte, très proche de celui de la lettre du 9décembre 1979, est
reproduit ci-après :

(J'ai l'honneuird'accuser réception des télégrammecsoncernant la réu-
nion, le 17mars 11980d , e la Cour internationale de Justice, sur requêtedu
Gouvemement d'esEtats-Unis d'Amérique,et de vous exposer ci-dessous
encore une fois la position du Gouvernement de la République islamique

d'Iran à cet égard :
Le Gouvemement de la République islamique d'Iran tient à exprimer le
respect qu'il voue à la Cour internationale de Justice et à ses distingués
membres pour I't~uvrepar eux accomplie dans la recherche de solutions
justes et équitables aux conflits juridiques entre Etats età attirer respec-

tueusement l'attention de la Cour sur les racines profondes et l'essence
mêmede la révolution islamiquede l'Iran, révolutionde toute une nation
opprimée contre les oppresseurs et leurs maîtres, et dont l'examen des
multiples répercussions relève essentiellementet directement de la souve-
raineté nationale de l'Iran.
Le Gouvernemient de la Républiqueislamique d'Iran estime que la Cour
ne peut et ne doit se saisir de l'affaire qui lui est soumise par le Gouver-
nement d'Amérique, et de façon fort révélatrice, limitée à la soi-disant

question des <(otages de l'ambassade américaine à Téhéran o.

Cette question, en effet, ne représente qu'un élément marginal et secon-
daired'un problèmed'ensemble dont ellene saurait êtreétudiéeséparément
et qui englobe entre autres plus de vingt-cinq ans d'ingérences continuelles
par les Etats-Uriis dans les affaires intérieures de l'Iran, d'exploitation
éhontéede notre pays et de multiples crimes perpétréscontre le peuple
iranien, envers t:t contre toutes les normes internationales et humani-
taires.

Le problème eiicause dans leconflit existant entre l'Iran etles Etats-Unis
ne tient donc pas de l'interprétation et de l'application des traités sur which the American Application is based, but results from an overall
situationcontainingmuchmorefundamentalandmorecomplexelements.
Consequently, the Court cannot examine the Amencan Application
divorcedfromitsproper context,namelythewholepoliticaldossierof the
relationsbetweenIran and the United Statesoverthe last 25years.
Withregard to therequestforprovisional measuresa ,sformulatedbythe
UnitedStates,itinfactimpliesthat theCourtshouldhavepassedjudgrnent
on theactualsubstanceof thecasesubmitted toit,whichthe Court cannot
do without breach of the normsgoverningits jurisdiction. Furthermore,
sinceprovisionalmeasuresarebydefinitionintended toprotecttheinterest
oftheparties,theycannotbeunilateral,astheyareintherequestsubmitted
by the AmericanGovemment."
The matters raised in those two communicationsare consideredlater in this
Judgment (paragraphs33-38and 81-82).

11. The position taken up by the Iranian Government in regard to the
present proceedings brings into operation Article 53 of the Statute, under
which the Court is required interaliato satisfy itself that the claims of the
Applicant are wellfounded in fact. As to this article theCourt pointed out
in the Corfu Channelcase that this requirement is to be understood as
applying within certain limits :

"While Article 53 thus obliges the Court to consider the submis-
sions of the Party which appears, it does not compel the Court to
examine their accuracy in al1their details ;for this might in certain
unopposed cases prove impossible in practice. It is sufficient for the
Court to convince itself by such methods as it considers suitable that
the submissions are well founded." (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 248.)

In the present case, the United States has explained that, owing to the
events in Iran of which it cornplains, it has been unable since then to
have access to its diplomatic and consular representatives, premises and
archives in Iran ;and that in consequence it has been unable to furnish
detailed factual evidence on some matters occumng after 4 November
1979.It mentioned in particular the lack of any factual evidence concern-
ing the treatment and conditions ofthepersons held hostage inTehran. On
this point, however, without givingthe names of the persons concerned, it
has submitted copies of declarations sworn by six of the 13 hostages who
had been released after two weeksof detention and returned to the United
States in November 1979.

12. The essentialfacts of the present caseare,for the most part,matters
of public knowledge which have received extensive coverage in the world
press and in radio and television broadcasts from Iran andother countries. lesquels se base la requête américainem, ais découled'une situation d'en-
semble comprensint des élémentb seaucoup plus fondamentaux et plus
complexes.Enconséquencel,aCournepeut examinerlarequêteaméricaine
en déhorsde son vrkcontexte a savoiri'ensemble du dossierpolitiquedes
relations entrel'Iran et les Etats-Unis au cours de ces vingt-cinq années.
En ce qui concerne la demande de mesures conservatoires, telle que
formuléeparles Etats-Unis, elleimpliqueen fait que la Cour aitjugé dela
substance même{del'affairequi lui est soumise, ceque celle-cine saurait

faire sans violer les normes qui régissentsa compétence,d'autre part, les
mesuresconservatoiresétantpar définition,destinéesàprotégerlesintérêts
des parties en cause, ellesne pourraient avoir le caractère unilatéralde la
requête présenté pear leouvernement américain. 1)
Les questions soulevéesdans ces deux communications seront examinéesplus

loin dans le présentairrê(tparagraphes 33-38 et 81-82).

11. La position adoptéepar le Gouvernement de l'Iran à l'égardde la
présente instance entraîne l'application de l'article53 du Statut, en vertu
duquel la Cour doit s'assurer notamment que les conclusions du deman-
deur sont fondéesen fait.Comme la Cour l'a dit à propos de cet article en
l'affaire duDétroit d(eCorfou, une telle obligation s'entend dans certaines
limites :

<<Tout en prescrivant ainsi à la Cour de procéder à un examen des
conclusions de 1;aPartiecomparante, l'article 53 n'a pas pour effet de

lui imposer la tâiche d'en vérifierl'exactitude dans tous les détail-
tâche qui, dans c:ertainscas et en raison de l'absence de contradiction,
pourrait s'avérerpratiquement impossible. Il suffit que, par les voies
qu'elle estime appropriées, la Cour acquière la conviction que ces
conclusions sont fondées. >>(C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p.248.)

En l'espèce lesEtats-Unis ont fait valoir que, par suite des événements
survenus en Iran qui sont à l'origine de leurs demandes, ils n'ont pu
prendre contact avec leurs représentants diplomatiques et consulaires ni
avoir accès à leurs locaux et à leurs archives diplomatiques et consulaires

dans ce pays ; il ne leur a donc pas étépossible d'apporter des preuves
détailléesde certains faitssurvenus àpartir du4 novembre 1979.L'absence
de donnéesde fait surletraitement et lacondition des personnes détenues
en otages à Téhérana étémentionnée comme exemple. Sur ce point,
cependant, les Etats-Unis ont produit, sans indiquer les noms des intéres-
sés,des copies de déctlarationssousserment de six des treize otages qui ont
étélibéréset rapatiiés aux Etats-Unis en novembre 1979 après deux

semaines de détention.
12. La plupart des faits essentiels de l'affaire sont de notoriété publique
et ont étélargement évoquésdans la presse mondiale ainsi que dans des
émissions de radiodiffusion et de télévisionde l'Iran et d'ailleurs. LesThey have been presented to the Court by the United States in its Me-
morial, in statements of itsAgent and Counselduring theoral proceedings,
and in written replies to questions put by Members of theCourt. Annexed
or appended to the Memorial arenumerous extracts of statementsmade by
Iranian and United States officials,either at press conferences or on radio
or television, and submitted to the Court in support of the request for

provisional measures and as a means of demonstrating the truth of the
account of the factsstated in the Memorial. Included alsoin the Memorial
is a "Statement of Venfication" made by a high officia1of the United
States Department of State having "overall responsibility within the
Department for matters relating to the crisis in Iran". While emphasizing
that in the circumstances of the case the United States has had to rely on
newspaper, radioand televisionreports fora number of the factsstated in
the Memorial, the high officia1concerned certifies that to the best of his
knowledge and belief the facts there stated are true. In addition, after the
filingof the Memorial, and byleaveoftheCourt, alargequantity offurther
documents of a similar kind to those already presented were submitted by
the United States for the purpose of bringing up to date the Court's
information conceming the continuing situation in regard to the occupa-
tion of the Embassy and detention of the hostages.
13. The result is that the Court has available to it a massive body of
informationfrom various sources concerning the facts and circumstances
of the present case,including numerous officia]statements of both Iranian
and United States authorities. So far as newspaper, radio and television
reports emanatingfrom Iran are concerned, theCourt has necessarily in
some cases relied on translations into English supplied by the Applicant.
The information available, however,is wholly consistent and concordant

as to the main facts and circumstances of the case. This information, as
well asthe United States Memorial and therecordsof the oral proceedings,
has al1 been communicated bv the Court to the Iranian Government
without having evokedfrom th; Governmentany denial or questioning of
the facts alleged before the Court by the United States. Accordingly, the
Court is satisfied that, within the meaning of Article 53of the Statute, the
allegations offact onwhichtheUnited States basesits claimsin thepresent
case are well founded.

14. Before examining the events of 4 November 1979,directly com-
plained of by the Government of the United States, it is appropriate to
mention certain other incidents whichoccurred before that date.At about
10.45a.m.on 14February 1979,during the unrest in Iran followingthe fa11
of the Government of Dr. Bakhtiar, the last Prime Minister appointed by
the Shah, an armed group attacked and seizedthe United States Embassy
in Tehran, taking prisoner the 70 persons they found there, including the
Ambassador. Two persons associated with the Embassy staffwere killed;
serious damage was caused to the Embassy and there were some acts of PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (AR~T) 10

Etats-Unis les ont présentés à la Cour dans leur mémoire,dans les plai-
doiries de leur agentletde leur conseil et dans leurs réponses écriàdes
questions de membres de la Cour. Lesannexes au mémoirecomportent de
nombreux extraits de:déclarationsfaites par despersonnalités iraniennes
et américaines,soit au cours de conférencesde presse, soit àla radiodif-

fusion età la télévision,xtraits qui ont ésoumis à la Courà l'appui de la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires ou de l'exposédes faits
figurant dans le mémioire.On trouve égalementdans celui-ci une attesta-
tion d'un haut foncti'onnairedu départementd'Etat des Etats-Unis qui a
<<la responsabilitéglobale, dans ce département,desquestions relativesà
la crise iranienne)).Tout en soulignant que, dans les circonstances de
l'espèce, lesEtats-Unus ont dû s'appuyer surles comptes rendus desjour-
naux, de laradiodiffusionet dela télévisiopour étayerun certainnombre
des faits rapportés dans le mémoire, cehaut fonctionnaire certifie qu'au-
tant qu'il le sacheles faits exposésdans le mémoiresont exacts. En outre,
après le dépôtdu mtSmoire,les Etats-Unis ont, avec l'autorisation de la
Cour, déposéungrandnombrede documentssupplémentairesanalogues à
ceuxqui avaient été soumisauparavant, afin de mettre àjour l'information
dont disposait laCour au sujet de la situation persistante caractériséepar
l'occupation de l'amlbassadeet la détention des otages.
13. Il en résulteque la Cour dispose d'une masse de renseignements de

sources diverses sur les faits et circonstances de la présente affaire, y
compris de nombreuisesdéclarationsofficiellesdes autorités iraniennes et
américaines. Pour les nouvelles d'origine iranienne transmises par les
journaux, la radiodiffusion et la télévision,la Cour a dû recourir dans
certains cas à des traductions en langue anglaise fournies par le deman-
deur. Les renseignements disponibles sont néanmoins d'unecohérenceet
d'une concordance totales en ce qui concerne les principaux faits et cir-
constances de l'affaire. LaCour les a communiquésau Gouvernement de
l'Iran, ainsi que le mémoire des Etats-Unis et les comptes rendus
d'audiences, sans que ce gouvernement ait opposéla moindre dénégation
ou mis en doute les faits alléguéspar les Etats-Unis devant la Cour. En
conséquencela Cour est convaincuequ'au sens de l'article 53du Statut les
allégationsde fait sur lesquelles'reposent les demandes des Etats-Unis en
l'espècesont fondées.

14. Avant d'examiner lesévénementsdu 4 novembre 1979directement
incriminéspar le Goilvernement desEtats-Unis, ilconvient de mentionner
certains autres incidents qui se sont produits auparavant. Le 14 février
1979vers 10h45,pendant lapérioded'agitation qui asuivien Iran lachute
du gouvernement de M. Bakhtiar, dernier premier ministre nommépar le
Chah, un groupe armé a attaqué et pris l'ambassade des Etats-Unis à
Téhéran,faisant prisonnièreslessoixante-dixpersonnes qui s'ytrouvaient,
ycompris l'ambassadeur. Deux personnesen rapport aveclepersonnel de
l'ambassade ont ététuées,l'ambassade a été gravement endommagéeet lapillaging of the Ambassador's residence.On this occasion, whilethe Iran-
ian authorities had not been able to prevent the incursion, they acted
promptly in response to the urgent appeal for assistance made by the
Embassy during the attack. At about 12noon, Mr. Yazdi, then a Deputy
Prime Minister, arrived at the Embassy accompanied by a member of the
national police, at least one officia1and a contingent of Revolutionary
Guards ; they quelled the disturbance and returned control of the com-

pound to Amencan diplomatic officials. On 11March 1979the United
StatesAmbassador received a letter dated 1 March from the Prime Mini-
ster, Dr. Bazargan, expressing regrets for the attack on the Embassy,
stating that arrangementshad been made toprevent any repetition of such
incidents, and indicating readiness to make reparation for the damage.
Attacks were also made during the same period on the United States
Consulates in Tabriz and Shiraz.
15. In October 1979,the Govemment of the United States was con-
templating perrnitting the former Shah of Iran, whowasthen in Mexico,to
enter the United States for medical treatment. Officiais of the United
States Government feared that, in the political climate prevailing in Iran,
the admission of the former Shah might increase the tension already
existing between the two States, and interalia result in renewed violence
against the United States Embassy in Tehran, and it was decided for this
reason to request assurances from the Govemment of Iran that adequate
protection would be provided. On 21 October 1979,at a meeting at whch
were present the Iranian Prime Mi~ster, Dr. Bazargan, the Iranian Min-
ister for Foreign Affairs, Dr. Yazdi, and the United States Chargé d'af-
faires in Tehran, the Govemment of Iran was informed of the decision to
admit theformer Shah to the United States, and of the concern felt by the
United States Government about the possible public reaction in Tehran.

When the United States Chargé d'affaires requested assurances that the
Embassy and its personnel would be adequately protected, assurances
were given by the Foreign Minister that the Government of Iran would
fulfil its international obligation to protect the Embassy. The request for
such assurances was repeated at a further meeting the following day,
22 October, and the Foreign Minister renewed his assurances that protec-
tion would be provided. The former Shah arrived in the United States on
22 October. On 30October, the Govemment of Iran, whichhad repeatedly
expressed its serious opposition to the admission of the former Shah to the
United States, and had asked the United States to permit two Iranian
physicians to verify the reality and the nature of his illness,requested the
United States to bring about his return to Iran. Nevertheless, on 31Octo-
ber, the Security Officer of the United States Embassy was told by the
Commander of the Iranian National Police that the police had been
instructed to provide full protection for the personnel of the Embassy.
16. On 1November 1979,while a very large demonstration was being
held elsewherein Tehran, large numbers of demonstrators marched to and
fro in front of the United States Embassy. Under the then existingsecurity
arrangements the Iranian authorities normally maintained 10to 15uni-résidencede l'ambassadeur a souffert de certains actes de pillage. A cette
occasion, bien qu'elles n'aient pu empêcher l'irruptiondes manifestants,
lesautoritésiraniennes ont réagirapidement quand l'ambassade ademan-

dé,l'attaque étanten cours, qu'on lui vienne en aide d'urgence.Vers midi
M. Yazdi, alors vice-premier ministre, est arràvl'ambassade en compa-
gnie d'un représentant de la police nationale, d'une autre personnalité et
d'un contingent de gardiens de la révolution ; ceux-ci ont mis fin au
désordreet remislesli,euxen possessiondesdiplomatesdesEtats-Unis. Le
11mars 1979,l'ambassadeur des Etats-Unis a reçu une lettre du premier
ministre,M. Bazargan,endate duleimars, oùcelui-ciexprimaitdes regrets
pour l'attaque de l'ambassade, annonçait que desdispositionsavaient été
prises pour prévenir ].arépétition d'incidentssemblables et se déclarait
disposé àréparerles dommages causés.Des attaquesont aussi eu lieu àla
mêmeépoque contre les consulats des Etats-Unis à Tabriz et à Chiraz.
15. En octobre 197'9leGouvernement des Etats-Unis envisageait d'au-
toriser l'ancien chah'Iran, qui se trouvait alors au Mexiqueàse rendre
aux Etats-Unis pour :ysubir un traitement médical.Les milieux gouver-
nementaux américainscraignaientque, dans leclimat politique qui régnait

alors en Iran, l'admission de l'ancien Chah n'accroissela tension existant
entre les deux Etats et, entre autres effets, n'entraîne de nouveaux actes de
violencecontre l'ambiissadedes Etats-Unis à Téhéran.Aussi fut-il décidé
de demander au Gouvernement de l'Iran l'assurance qu'ilaccorderait à
l'ambassade une protr:ction adéquate.Le21octobre 1979, àune réunion à
laquelle participaient lepremier ministre d'Iran, M. Bazargan, le ministre
des affairesétrangère:^M,. Yazdi, et le chargéd'affaires des Etats-Unàs
Téhéran,le Gouvernement de l'Iran a étéaviséde la décisionde laisser
entrerl'ancien Chah aux Etats-Unis et de l'inquiétude du Gouvernement
des Etats-Unis quant aux réactions possiblesdu publiàTéhéran.Lorsque
le chargéd'affaires dt:s Etats-Unis a demandéà êtreassuréque l'ambas-
sade et son personnel bénéficieraientde la protection voulue, le ministre
des affaires étrangères d'Iran a promis quele Gouvernement de l'Iran
remplirait sonobligationinternationale deprotégerl'ambassade.Lamême
demande a étéformulée à une nouvelle réunionqui a eu lieulelendemain,
22 octobre, etleministredesaffairesétrangèresarenouvelésesassurances.

L'ancien Chah est aririvéle mêmejour aux Etats-Unis. Le 30octobre le
Gouvernement de l'han, qui avait exprimé à diverses reprises sa ferme
opposition à l'adrnissiionde l'ancien Chah aux Etats-Unis et avait priéles
Etats-Unisde permetitre àdeux médecinsiraniens de vérifierla réalietla
nature de sa maladie, a demandéaux Etats-Unis de faire en sorte qu'il
retourne en Iran. Le 31 octobre le commandant de la police nationale
iranienne acependant.indiqué au responsable delasécuritédel'ambassade
des Etats-Unis que la police avait reçu pour instructions de veilleà la
complète protection du personnel de l'ambassade.
16. Le ler novembre 1979,alors qu'une très grande manifestation se
déroulaitdans un autre quartier de Téhéran,de nombreux manifestants
ont passé etrepassédevant l'ambassade desEtats-Unis. Dans lecadre des
dispositions de sécurité alors envigueur, les autorités iraniennes mainte-formed policemen outside the Embassy compound and a contingent of
Revolutionary Guards nearby ;on this occasion the normal complement
of police wasstationed outside thecompound and the Embassyreported to
the State Departmentthat itfeltconfident that itcouldgetmoreprotection
ifneeded. The Chiefof Policecame to the Embassypersonally and met the
Chargéd'affaires, whoinformed Washington that the Chief was "taking
lusjob ofprotecting the Embassyveryseriously". It wasannounced on the
radio, and by the prayer leader at the main demonstration in another

location in the city, that people should not go to the Embassy. During the
day, the number of demonstrators at the Embassy was around 5,000,but
protection was maintained by Iranian securityforces.That evening,as the
crowddispersed,both the Iranian Chiefof Protocol and the Chiefof Police
expressed relief to the Chargéd'affaires that everything had gone well.

17. Atapproximately 10.30a.m.on4November 1979,during thecourse
of a demonstration of approximately 3,000 persons, the United States
Embassy compound in Tehran was overrun by a strong armed group of
several hundred people. The Iranian security personnel are reported to
have simplydisappeared from the scene ; at al1eventsit isestablished that
they made no apparent effort to deter or prevent the demonstrators from
seizing the Embassy's premises. The invading group (who subsequently
described themselves as "Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's
Policy", and who willhereafter be referred to as "the militants") gained ac-
cess by force to the compound and to the ground floor of the Chancery
building. Over two hours after the beginning of the attack, and after the
militants had attempted to set fire to the Chancery building and to cut
through the upstairs steeldoors with atorch, they gainedentrytotheupper

floor ;onehour later they gained control of the main vault. The militants
also seized the other buildings, including the various residences, on the
Embassy compound. In the course of the attack, al1the diplomatic and
consular personnel and other persons present in the prerniseswere seized
as hostages, and detained in the Embassy compound ;subsequently other
United States personnel and one United States private citizen seized
elsewhere in Tehran were brought to the compound and added to the
number of hostages.

18. During thethreehoursor moreof theassault, repeated callsfor help
were made from the Embassy to the Iranian Foreign Ministry, and re-
peated efforts to secure help from the Iranian authorities were also made
through direct discussions by the United StatesChargéd'affaires, whowas
at the Foreign Ministry at the time, together withtwoother members ofthe
mission. From there he madecontact with the Prime Minister's Officeand
with Foreign Ministry officials. A request was also made to the Iranian
Chargé d'affairesin Washington for assistance in putting an end to the
seizure of the Embassy. Despite these repeated requests, no Iranian secu- PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 12

naient normalement dix àquinzeagents depoliceenuniforme al'extérieur
de l'enceinte de l'ambassade et un détachementde gardiens de la révolu-
tion a proximité. A cetteoccasion le contingent habituel de police étaita
son poste àl'extérieurde l'enceinte, et l'ambassadea fait part au dépar-
tement d'Etat de sa certitude de pouvoir obtenir une protection accrue s'il
en étaitbesoin. Le chef de la police s'estrendu enpersonne à l'ambassade
et y a rencontré le chargéd'affaires, lequela informéWashington que ce
fonctionnaire <prenait son travail de protection de l'ambassade trèsau

sérieux )>Des appels ont été lancéspar la radiodiffusion et par la person-
nalité quidirigeait laprièreà la manifestation principaleencours dans un
autre quartier, afin qiie la population ne se porte pas vers I'ambassade.
Pendant lajournée, le nombre des manifestants devant I'ambassade s'est
situéautour de cinq mille, mais les forces iraniennes de sécuritén'ont pas
relâchéleur protectiori. Lemême soir,aumoment où la foulesedispersait,
le chef du protocole et le chef de la police iraniens ont dit au chargé
d'affaires combien ils étaientsoulagésque tout se fût bien passé.
17. Le 4 novembre 1979vers 10h 30 du matin, au cours d'une mani-
festation de quelque trois millepersonnes, un fortgroupe armédeplusieurs
centaines de personnes a fait irruption dans l'enceintede I'ambassadedes

Etats-Unis àTéhéran.Les forces de sécurité iraniennes - a-t-on dit- ont
purement et simplement disparu ;il est certain en tout cas qu'elles n'ont
apparemment rien faiit pour décourager les manifestants ou pour les
empêcher des'emparer des locaux de l'ambassade. Le groupe des enva-
hisseurs (qui se sont qualifiés eux-mêmed sepuis lorsd'<(étudiantsmusul-
manspartisans de lapolitique de l'imam etqui seront appelésci-aprèsles
militantss ')st introcluit par la force dans l'enceinte, puis au rez-de-
chausséede lachancellerie. Plusdedeux heures aprèsledébutdel'attaque,
après avoir essayéde mettre le feu a la chancellerie et de découperau
chalumeau lesportes d'acier de I'étagesupérieur,les militants ont réussi à
envahir celui-ci ; une: heure plus tard la chambre forte principale est

tombéeen leur pouvoir. Les militants se sont aussi emparés des autres
bâtiments sisdans l'enceinte,ycomprislesdifférentesrésidences.Aucours
de l'attaque tous les membres du personnel diplomatique et consulaire
ainsi que les autres personnes qui setrouvaient sur leslieuxont étépris en
otages et détenus dains l'enceinte de I'ambassade ; plus tard des mem-
bres du personnel, ainsi qu'un autre ressortissant des Etats-Unis, cap-
turésailleurs dans Té:hérano ,nt éte amenés à l'ambassade et réunis aux
otages.
18. Pendant lestrois heures ou plus que cette attaque a duré,des appels
à l'aide répétéosnt étéadressésde I'ambassade au ministèredes affaires
étrangèresd'Iran etlechargéd'affairesdesEtats-Unis, qui setrouvait alors

au ministère des affaires étrangèresavec deux autres membres de la mis-
sion, s'estaussi efforcé plusieurs reprises, par desconversations directes,
d'obtenir l'assistancedes autoritésiraniennes. Du ministère,il a pris con-
tact avec le cabinet du premier ministre et avec des fonctionnaires des
affairesétrangères.Il a égalementété demandéau chargéd'affaires d'Iran
à Washington d'apporter son aide pour que cesse l'occupation de l'am-nty forces were sent in time to provide relief and protection to the
Embassy. In fact when Revolutionary Guards ultimately arrived on the
scene, despatched by the Government "to prevent clashes", they con-
sidered that their task was merely to "protect the safety of both the
hostages and the students", according to statements subsequently made by
the Iranian Government's spokesman, and by the operations commander
of the Guards. No attempt was made by the Iranian Government to clear
the Embassy premises, to rescue the persons held hostage, or to persuade
the militants to terminate their action against the Embassy.

19. During the morning of 5 November, only hours after the seizureof
the Embassy, the United States Consulates in Tabriz and Shirazwere also
seized ; again the Iranian Government took no protective action. The
operation of these Consulates had been suspended since the attack in
February 1979(paragraph 14above), and therefore no United States per-
sonnel were seized on these premises.
20. The United States diplomatic mission and consular posts in Iran
were not the only ones whose premises were subjected to demonstrations
during the revolutionary penod in Iran. On 5 November 1979,a group
invaded the British Embassy in Tehran but was ejected after a brief
occupation. On 6 November 1979a brief occupation of the Consulate of
Iraq at Kermanshah occurredbut wasbrought to an end on instructions of
the Ayatollah Khomeini ;no damage was done to the Consulate or its
contents. On 1January 1980 an attack was made on the Embassy in

Tehran of the USSR by a large mob, but asa result of theprotection given
by the Iranian authorities to the Embassy, no serious damage was
done.
21. The premises of the United States Embassy in Tehran have
remained in the hands of militants ;and the same appears to be the case
with the Consulates at Tabnz and Shiraz. Of the total number of United
States citizens seizedand held as hostages, 13were released on 18-20No-
vember 1979,but theremainder havecontinued tobe held up to thepresent
time. The release of the 13hostages was effected pursuant to a decree by
the Ayatollah Khomeini addressed to the militants, dated 17November
1979,in which he called upon the militants to "hand over the blacks and
the women, if it is proven they did not spy, to the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs so that they may be immediately expelled from Iran".
22. The persons still held hostage in Iran include, according to the
information furnished to the Court by the United States, at least 28
persons having the status, duly recognized by the Government of Iran, of
"member of the diplomatic staff" within the meaning of the Vienna Con-
vention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961;at least 20 persons having the
status, similarly recognized, of "member of the administrative and tech-
nical staff" within the meaning ofthat Convention ;and twoother persons
of United States nationality not possessing either diplomatic or consular
status. Of the persons with the status of member of the diplomatic staff,

four are members of the Consular Section of the Mission.bassade. Malgré cesdemandes réitéréea s,ucune forcede sécuritéiranienne
n'a étédépêchée à temipspour prêtersecours et protection à l'ambassade.
En fait,lorsque desgardiens dela révolution, envoyép sar legouvernement
pour <(empêcherdesaffrontements O,sont finalement arrivéssur leslieux,
ils ont estiméque leur seul rôle étaitde<protégerla sécuritédesotageset
des étudiants O, ainsi qu'il ressort des déclarations ultérieuresdu porte-
parole du Gouvernement de l'Iran et d'un commandant des gardiens. Le

Gouvernement de l'Iran n'a rienfait pour dégagerles locaux de l'ambas-
sade, pour délivrer lespersonnes prises en otages, ni pour persuader les
militants de mettre fin à l'action contre l'ambassade.
19. Le matin du 5 novembre, quelques heures seulement après la chute
de l'ambassade, lesconsulats des Etats-Unis à Tabriz et à Chiraz étaient
occupés à leur tour;la encore le Gouvernement de l'Iran n'a pris aucune
mesure de protection. Ces consulats ayant suspendu toute activitédepuis
l'attaque de février19179 (paragraphe 14ci-dessus), aucun fonctionnaire
des Etats-Unis n'y a &técapturé.

20. La mission diplomatique et lespostesconsulairesdesEtats-Unis en
Iran n'ont pas étélesseulsà êtreviséspar desmanifestations au cours dela
période révolutionnairedans ce pays. Le 5 novembre 1979un groupe a
envahi l'ambassade du Royaume-Uni, maisenaété chasséaprèsune brève
occupation. Le 6 novembre 1979 leconsulat d'Irak à Kermanchah a été
temporairement occulpé,mais il a étéévacué sur l'ordrede l'ayatollah
Khomeini ; ses 1ocau:icet les biens qui s'y trouvaient n'ont subi aucun
dommage. Le ler janvier 1980l'ambassade de l'URSS à Téhéran a été
attaquée par une foule nombreuse mais, grâce a la protection fournie par

les autoritésiraniennes, elle n'a pas subi de dommage important.

21. Les locaux de l'ambassade des Etats-Unis àTéhéransont toujours
aux mainsdesmilitants et ilsembleen allerde mêmepour lesconsulats de
Tabriz et de Chiraz. Sur lenombre total de citoyens américainscapturés et
retenus en otages, trei:zeont étélibérés les18-20novembre 1979,mais les
autres sont encore détenus àcejour. Les treize otages libérés l'ont tà la
suite d'une décisiondu 17novembre 1979,par laquelle l'ayatollah Kho-
meiniinvitait lesmilitants à<(remettre au ministèredes affaires étrangères

les Noirs et les femmes, s'ilest prouvéqu'ils n'ont pas eu d'activitéd'es-
pionnage, afin qu'ils soient immédiatement expulsésd'Iran )).

22. D'après lesrenseignementsque lesEtats-Unis ont fournis alaCour,
les otages encore détenusen Iran comprennent au moins vingt-huit per-
sonnes ayant laqualitk dûment reconnue par leGouvernement de l'Irande
membres du persorinel diplomatique au sens de la convention de
Vienne de 1961sur les relations diplomatiques, au moins vingt ayant la
qualitéégalementreconnue de <membres du personnel administratif et

technique ))au sens de cette convention et deux autres ressortissants des
Etats-Unis n'ayant ni statut diplomatique ni statut consulaire. Quatre des
personnes qui ont la qualité de membres du personnel diplomatique
appartiennent à la section consulaire de la mission.14 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

23. Allegations have been made by the Govemment of the United
States of inhumane treatment of hostages ; the militants and Iranian

authorities have asserted thatthe hostages havebeen welltreated, and have
allowed special visits to the hostages by religious personalities and by
representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross. The
specific allegations of ill-treatment have not however been refuted. Ex-
amples of such allegations, whch are mentioned in some of the sworn de-
clarations of hostages released in November 1979,are as follows :at the
outset of the occupation of the Embassy some were paraded bound and
blindfolded before hostile and chanting crowds ;at least during the initial
period of their captivity,hostages were kept bound, and frequently blind-
folded, denied mail or any communication with their government or with
each other, subjected to interrogation, threatened with weapons.

24. Those archives and documents of the United States Embassy which
werenot destroyed by the staff during the attack on 4 November havebeen
ransacked by the militants. Documents purporting to corne from this

source have been disseminated by the militants and by the Govemment-
controlled media.
25. The United States Chargé d'affaires in Tehran and the two other
members of the diplomatic staff of the Embassy who were in the premises
of the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs at the timeof the attack havenot
left the Ministry since ;their exact situation there has been the subject of
conflictingstatements. On 7 November 1979,it wasstated in an announce-
ment by the Iranian Foreign Ministry that "as the protection of foreign
nationals is the duty of the Iranian Government", the Chargéd'affaires
was "staying in" the Ministry. On 1 December 1979, Mr. Sadegh
Ghotbzadeh, who had become Foreign Minister, stated that

"it has been announced that, if the U.S. Embassy's chargéd'affaires
and his two companions, who have sought asylum in the Iranian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, should leave this ministry, the ministry
would not accept any responsibility for them".
According to a press report of4 December, the Foreign Minister amplified
this statement by saying that as long as they remained in the ministry he
was personally responsible for ensuring that nothing happened to them,
but that "as soonas they leavethe ministry precincts they will fa11back into

the hands of justice, and then 1will be the first to demand that they be
arrested and tried". The militants made it clear that they regarded the
Chargé and his two colleagues as hostages also. When in March 1980the
Public Prosecutor of the Islamic Revolution of Iran called for one of the
three diplomats to behanded over tohim, itwas announced by the Foreign
Minister that
"Regarding the fate of the three Americans in the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, the decision rests first with the imam of the nation
[i.e.,theAyatollah Khomeini] ;in case there isno cleardecision by the PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 14

23. Le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis a allégué que desotages ont subi
des traitements inhumains ; les militants et les autorités iraniennes ont
affirméque lesotages sont bien traités etont autorisédesvisites spéciales
de personnalitésreligieuseset de représentantsdu Comitéinternational de

la Croix-Rouge. Tout<:foisles allégations précises de mauvais traitements
n'ont pas étéréfutées.Comme exemples des faits ainsi alléguésm , ention-
nés dans certaines des déclarations sous serment d'otages libérésen
novembre 1979,on peut citer ce qui suit :au début de l'occupation de
l'ambassade, des otages ont étépromenés, mainsliéeset yeux bandés,
devant des foules hostiles et scandant des slogans ; pendant la période
initiale de leur captivitéau moins, des otages ont été attachée st on leur a
souvent bandéles yeux, ils ont étéprivésde coumer et de toute commu-
nication avecleurgouvernement ouentre eux,soumis àdesinterrogatoires,

menacés avecdes armes.
24. Les archives et ldocumentsde l'ambassade des Etats-Unis qui n'ont
pas été détruits par le personnel pendant l'attaque du 4 novembre ont été
pilléspar les militants. Des documents présentés comme en faisant partie
ont étédivulguéspar eux ainsi que par les médiassous contrôle du gou-
vernement.
25. Le chargéd'affaires des Etats-Unis à Téhéran etles deux autres
membres du personnel diplomatique de l'ambassade qui se trouvaient
dans les locaux du ministèredes affaires étrangères d'Iranau moment de

l'attaque ne les ont pas quittés depuis lors ; leur situation exacte au
ministère a donné lieu à des déclarations contradictoires. Le 7 novem-
bre 1979 le ministère des affaires étrangèresd'Iran a annoncé que,
<(comme la protection des étrangers est du devoir du Gouvernement de
l'Iran O,le chargéd'alfaires <(restait)>dans ses locaux. Le leidécembre
1979 M. Sadegh Ghotbzadeh, devenu entre-temps ministre des affaires
étrangères, déclarait :

il a étéannoncé que, si le chargéd'affaires de l'ambassade des
Etats-Unis et sesdeux compagnons,qui ont cherché asileau ministère
des affaires étrangères d'Iran,quittaient ce ministère, le ministère
n'assumerait aucune responsabilité à leur sujet D.

Selon un article de joiùrnal du 4 décembre, leministre des affaires étran-
gères a complété cette déclaration en disant que,tant qu'ils seraient au
ministère,il s'engageait personnellement à ce que rien ne leur arrive, mais
que dèsqu'ilsquitteront l'enceintedu ministère, ilsretomberont entre les
mains de lajustice etje serai alors lepremierà demander qu'on lesarrêteet
qu'on lesjuge ))Les militants ont proclamé qu'ilsconsidéraientaussi le
chargé d'affaires et se:$deux collèguescommedes otages. Lorsqu'en mars
1980leprocureur génkralde larévolution islamiqued'Iran a demandéque
l'un des trois diplomates lui soit livré,le ministre desaffairesétrangères a
annoncé :

(<Quant au sort à réserver auxtrois Américainsqui se trouvent au
ministèredes affaires étrangères,la décisiondépendtout d'abord de
l'imam de la nation [c'est-à-direde l'ayatollah Khomeini] ; au cas où imam of the nation, the Revolution Council will make a decision on
this matter."

26. From the outset of the attack upon its Embassy in Tehran, the
United States protested to theGovemment of Iranboth at the attack and
at the seizure and detention of the hostages. On 7November a former
Attorney-General of the United States,Mr. Ramsey Clark, was instructed
togowithan assistant to Iran todeiiveramessagefrom the President ofthe
United States to the Ayatollah Khomeini. The text of that messagehas not
been made available to the Court by the Applicant, but the United States
Govemment has informed the Court that it thereby protested at the
conduct of the Government of Iran and called for release of the hostages,
andthat Mr.Clark wasalsoauthorized todiscussal1avenuesfor resolution
of the crisis.While hewasenroute, Tehranradiobroadcast amessagefrom
the Ayatollah Khomeini dated 7November, solemnly forbidding mem-
bers of the Revolutionary Council and al1the responsible officialsto meet
the United States representatives. In that messageitwas asserted that "the
U.S. Embassyin Iran isour enemies'centreofespionageagainst oursacred
Islamic movement", and the message continued :

"Should the United States hand over to Iran the deposed shah ...
and giveup espionage against our movement, the way to talks would
be opened on the issue of certain relations which are in the interest of
the nation."

Subsequently, despite the efforts of the United Sates Govemment to open
negotiations, it became clear that the Iranian authorities would have no
direct contact with representatives of the United States Govemment con-
cerning the holding of the hostages.

27. During the period which has elapsed since the seizure of the Em-
bassy a number of statements have been made by various govemmental
authorities in Iran which are relevant to the Court's examination of the
responsibiiity attributed to the Government of Iran in the submissions of
the United States. These statements will be examined by the Court in
considering these submissions (paragraphs 59 and 70-74 below).

28. On 9November 1979,the Permanent Representative of the United
States to the United Nations addressed a letter to the President of the
Security Council, requesting urgent consideration of what might be done
to secure the release of the hostages and to restore the "sanctity of dip-
lomatic personnel and establishments". The sameday, the President of the
Security Council made a public statement urging the release of the hos-
tages, and the President of the General Assembly announced that he was
sending apersona1messageto theAyatollah Khomeini appealing for their PERSONNI!L DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 15

celui-cine prendraitpasde décision ferme àcesujet, c'estleconseil de
la révolution qui trancherait la question. )i
26. Dès le début de l'attaque contre leur ambassade à Téhéran,les
Etats-Unis ont prote:stéauprès du Gouvernement de l'Iran aussi bien

contrel'attaque elle-mêmeque contrela capture et la détention desotages.
Le7 novembre M.Ra.mseyClark, ancienAttorney-Generaldes Etats-Unis,
a étédésigné pour serendre en Iran avecun collaborateur afin de remettre
à l'ayatollah Khomeini un message du président des Etats-Unis. Le
demandeur n'apascommuniqué à laCour letexte decemessage,mais illui
a fait connaîtreque le:Gouvernement des Etats-Unis yprotestait contre le
comportement du Gouvernement de l'Iran et demandait la libérationdes
otages et que M. Clairkétait enoutre autorisé à discuter toutes les possi-
bilitésde résolution de la crise. Alors que M. Clark était en route, la
radiodiffusion de Téhérana transmis un messagedu 7 novembre de l'aya-
tollah Khomeini, qui interdisait formellement aux membres du conseil de
la révolutionet aux plersonnalitésresponsables de rencontrer lesreprésen-
tants des Etats-Unis. Il était indiquédans ce message que l'ambassade

des Etats-Unis en Iran est le centre d'espionnage de nos ennemis contre
notre mouvement is1,arniquesacré)iet que :
Si les Etats-Unis remettaient à l'Iran le Chah déposé...et aban-
donnaient l'espionnage contre notre mouvement, la voie des pour-
parlers serait ouverte sur la question de certaines relations qui sont

dans l'intérêdte la nation. )>
Ultérieurement, en dépitdes efforts faits par le Gouvernement des Etats-
Unis pour entamer des négociations, il est apparu clairement que les
autorités iraniennes entendaient n'avoir aucun contact direct avec les
représentants du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis au sujet de la détention
des otages.

27. Au cours de la période écouléedepuis la prise de l'ambassade,
diverses personnalitks gouvernementales iraniennes ont fait un certain
nombre de déclarations pertinentes pour l'examen par la Cour des res-
ponsabilitésattribuéesau Gouvernement de 1'Irandans lesconclusions des
Etats-Unis. La Cour (entraitera dans lecadrede l'étudede cesconclusions
(paragraphes 59 et 710-74ci-après).

28. Le 9 novembre 1979le représentant permanent des Etats-Unis aux
Nations Unies aadresséunelettre au Présidentdu Conseil desécuritépour
demander que soit examinéd'urgence ce qui pourrait êtrefaitafin que les
otages soient relâchéset que soit rétablie <l'inviolabilitédu personnel et
des locaux diplomatiques hiLe mêmejour le Président du Conseil de
sécuritéafaitune déclaration publique demandant lalibérationdesotages
et le Présidentde l7A.ssemblég eénéralea annoncéqu'il envoyait person-

nellement un appel r:n ce sens à l'ayatollah Khomeini. Le 25novembre16 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

release. On 25 November 1979, the Secretary-General of the United
Nations addressed a letter to the President of the Security Council refer-
rin" to the seizure of the United States Embassv in Tehran and the de-
tention of its diplomatic personnel, and requesting an urgent meeting of
the Security Council "in an effort to seek a peaceful solution to the
problem". The Security Council met on 27November and 4 December
1979 ;on the latter occasion, no representative of Iran waspresent, but the
Council took note of a letter of 13November 1979from the Supervisorof
the Iranian Foreign Ministry to the Secretary-General. The Security
Council then adopted resolution 457(1979),caliing on Iran to release the
personnel of the Embassy immediately, to provide them with protection
and to allow them to leave the country. The resolution also called on the
two Governments to take steps to resolvepeacefully the remaining issues
between them, and requested the Secretary-General to lend his good
offices for the immediateimplementation of the resolution, and to take al1

appropriate measures to that end. It further stated that the Council would
"remain actively seized of the matter" and requested the Secretary-Gen-
eral to report to it urgently on any developments with regard to his
efforts.
29. On 31December 1979,the SecurityCouncil met again and adopted
resolution 461 (1979), in which it reiterated both its calls to the Iranian
Government and its request to the Secretary-General to lend his good
offices for achieving the object of the Council's resolution.The Secretary-
General visited Tehran on 1-3January 1980,and reported to the Security
Council on 6 January. On 20 February 1980,the Secretary-General an-
nounced the setting up of a commission to undertake a "fact-finding
mission" to Iran. The Court will revert to the terms of reference of this
commission and the progress of its work in connection with a question of
adrnissibility of the proceedings (paragraphs 39-40 below).

30. Prior to the institution of the present proceedings,in addition to the
approach made by the Government of the United States to the United
Nations Security Council, that Government also took certain unilateral
actionin responseto theactionsfor wluchit holds theGovernment of Iran
responsible. On 10November 1979,stepswere taken to identify al1Iranian
students in the United States whowerenot in compliancewith the terms of
their entry visas, and to commence deportation proceedings against those
who were in violation of applicableimmigration lawsand regulations. On
12November 1979, the President of the United States ordered the dis-
continuation of al1oil purchases from Iran for delivery to the United
States. Believingthat the Govemment of Iran was about to withdraw al1
Iranian funds fromUnited States banks and to refuseto acceptpayment in
dollars for oil, and to repudiate obligations owed to the United States and
to United States nationals, the President on 14November 1979acted to

block the verylargeofficia1Iranian assetsin theUnited Statesor in United PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 16

1979le Secrétairegénéralde l'organisation des Nations Unies a adressé
une lettre au Présidentdu Conseil de sécurité, oùil évoquait laprise de
l'ambassade des Etats-Unis à Téhéran etla détention de son personnel
diplomatique etdemandaitque leConseil seréunisse d'urgence (<envuede
rechercher une solution pacifique du problème )).Le Conseil de sécurité
s'est réuniles 27 novembre et 4 décembre 1979 ; àcette dernière date,
aucun représentant de l'Iran n'étaitprésent,mais le Conseil a pris note
d'unelettre du 13novembre 1979du responsabledu ministèredes affaires
étrangèresd'Iran au Secrétairegénéral.Le Conseil de sécurité a alors
adoptéla résolution457 (1979), demandant à l'Iran de libérer immédia-
tement le personnel de l'ambassade, d'assurer sa protection et de lui
permettre de quitter le pays. La résolutiondemandait en outre aux deux

gouvernements de prendre des mesures pour régler pacifiquement les
questionsqui restaientàrésoudreentre euxetpriait leSecrétairegénéra dle
prêterses bons offices pour l'application immédiatede la résolutionet de
prendre toutes lesmesures appropriées àcettefin. Elledécidaitaussiquele
Conseil resterait activement saisi de la question et priait le Secrétaire
généralde lui faire rapport d'urgence surles résultatsde ses efforts.

29. Le 31 décembre 1979 le Conseil de sécurité atenu une nouvelle
réunion et adopté la résolution461 (1979), dans laquelle il réitéraitses
appels au Gouvernement del'Iranetpriait denouveau leSecrétairegénéral
de prêterses bons o.fficespour réaliserles objectifs de sa résolution.Le
Secrétairegénérals'estrendu à Téhéran duler au 3janvier 1980et a fait
rapport au Conseil d,esécurité le 6janvier. Le20 février1980ila annoncé

la création d'unecommission chargéed'entreprendre <une mission d'éta-
blissement des faits :)en Iran. La Cour reviendra sur le mandat de cette
commission etledéroulementde sestravaux àpropos de la recevabilitéde
l'instance (paragraphes 39-40 ci-après).

30. Avant l'introduction de la présenteinstance et en plus de son appel
au Conseil de sécuritkdes Nations Unies, leGouvernement des Etats-Unis
a adoptécertaines mesures unilatéralesen réponse aux actesdont il tenait
le Gouvernement de l'Iran pour responsable. Le 10 novembre 1979des
dispositions ont étéprises pour recenser tous les étudiantsiraniens qui se

trouvaient aux Etats-Unis dans des conditions non conformes à leur visa
d'entrée et pour entamer une procédure d'expulsion contre ceux qui
auraient contrevenuaux loiset règlementsd'immigration.Le 12novembre
1979le présidentde.sEtats-Unis a ordonnéde mettre fin aux achats de
pétrole iranien destinésaux Etats-Unis. Pensant que le Gouvernement de
l'Iran allait retirer toiislesfondsiraniensdesbanques américaines, refuser
d'accepter le règlementen dollars des livraisons de pétroleet répudierses
obligations financières envers les Etats-Unis et leurs ressortissants, le
Président a fait bloquer le 14 novembre 1979 les très importants avoirs
officiels iraniens sous contrôle des Etats-Unis, y compris les dépôtsdans17 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

Statescontrol, including deposits bothin banks inthe United Statesand in
foreign branches and subsidiaries of United States banks. On 12 Decem-

ber 1979,aftertheinstitution of the present proceedings, the United States
informed the Iranian Chargéd'affaires in Washington that thenumber of
personnel assigned to the Iranian Embassy and consular posts in the
United States was to be restricted.
31. Subsequently to the indication by the Court of provisional mea-
sures, and during the present proceedings, the United States Government
took other action. A draft resolution was introduced into the United
Nations Security Council calling for economic sanctions against Iran.
When it was put to the vote on 13January 1980,the result was 10votesin
favour,2 against, and 2 abstentions (onemember not havingparticipated
in the voting) ;as apermanent member of the Councilcast anegativevote,
the draft resolution was not adopted. On 7 April 1980the United States

Government broke off diplomatic relations with the Government of Iran.
At the same time, the United States Government prohibited exports from
the United States to Iran - one of the sanctions previouslyproposed by it
to the Security Council. Steps were taken to prepare an inventory of the
assets of the Government of Iran frozen on 14November 1979.and to
make a census of outstanding claims of American nationals against the
Government of Iran, with a viewto "designing a program against Iran for
the hostages, the hostage families and other U.S. claimants" involvingthe
preparation of legislation "to facilitate processing and paying of these
claims" and al1visas issued to Iranian citizens for future entry into the
United States were cancelled. On 17April 1980,the United States Gov-
ernment announced further economic measures directed against Iran,
prohibited travel there by United States citizens, and made further plans

for reparations to be paid to the hostages and their families out of frozen
Iranian assets.

32. During the night of 24-25April 1980the President of the United
States setin motion, and subsequentlyterminated for technicalreasons, an
operation withn Iranian temtory designed to effect the rescue of the
hostages by United States military units. In an announcement made on
25 April, President Carter explained that the operation had been planned
over a long period as a humanitarian mission to rescue the hostages, and
had finallybeen setin motion byhim in thebelief that thesituation inIran
posed mounting dangers to the safety of the hostages and that their early
release was highly unlikely. He stated that the operation had been under

wayinIran when equipment failurecompelled itstermination ;and that in
thecourse of the withdrawal of the rescueforcestwo United Statesaircraft
had collided in a remote desert location in Iran. He further stated that
preparations for the rescue operationshad been ordered forhumanitarian
reasons, to protect the national interests of the United States, and to
alleviate international tensions. At thesame time,he emphasized that the
operation had not been motivated by hostility towards Iran or the Iranian
people. The texts of President Carter's announcementand of certainotherdesbanques aux Etats-Unis et dans des succursales et filialesétrangèresde
banques américaines. Le 12 décembre 1979, après l'introduction de la
présente instance, lesEtats-Unis ont informéle chargéd'affaires d'Iran à
Washington que le nombre des fonctionnaires affectés à l'ambassade et
aux postes consulaires iraniens aux Etats-Unis devrait êtreréduit.

31. Après que la Cour eut indiqué des mesures conservatoires et pen-
dant laprésente instance, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis a adoptéd'au-
tres mesures. Un projet de résolution prescrivant des sanctions écono-
miques contre l'Iran aété soumisau Conseil de sécurité desNations Unies.
Lorsqu'ila été mis aux voixle 13janvier 1980,dix membres ont votépour,
deux contre et deux sesont abstenus (un membre n'ayant pas participéau
vote) ;un membre permanent du Conseil ayant votécontre, le projet de
résolution n'apas étéadoptéL . e 7 avril 1980le Gouvernement des Etats-

Unis a rompu lesrelationsdiplomatiques avecle Gouvernement de l'Iran.
En même tempsil a p-ohibe les exportations des Etats-Unis vers l'Iran,
ce qui était l'une des sanctions qu'il avait antérieurement proposées au
Conseil de sécurité.Dlesmesures ont étéprises pour faire l'inventaire des
avoirs du Gouvernem~rntde l'Iran bloquésle 14novembre 1979et dresser
la liste des réclamations de ressortissants des Etats-Unis contre le Gou-
vernement de l'Iran, e:nvue de <mettre au point un plan d'action contre
l'Iran au profit des otages, de leurs familles et des autres réclamants
américains qui comporte la préparation d'une législation destinée à
<<faciliter l'examen et lerèglementdecesréclamations ));en outre tous les
visasdélivrés àdes citoyens iranienspour entrée ultérieure auxEtats-Unis
ont été annulés.Le 17avril 1980 le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis a
annoncé l'adoption denouvelles mesures économiquescontre l'Iran ; il a
interdit aux ressortissants des Etats-Unis de serendre dans cepays et apris
de nouvelles dispositionspour que lesotages et leurs famillespuissent être

indemnisés au moyendes avoirs iraniens bloqués.
32. Dans la nuit di124 au 25 avril 1980, leprésidentdes Etats-Unis a
déclenché,puis fait cesser pour des raisons techniques, une opération en
territoire iranienisant à faire délivrerles otages par des unités militaires
des Etats-Unis. Dans une déclaration du 25 avril le président Carter a
expliquéque l'opération avaitétépréparéede longue date en tant que
mission humanitaire de délivrancedes otages et qu'il l'avait finalement
ordonnéeparce qu'à son avis la situation en Iran comportait des dangers
croissants pour la sécurité des otages et que leur libération à une date
rapprochée étaittout a fait improbable. Le Présidentindiquait que l'opé-
ration étaiten cours e:nIran lorsque des défaillancesdu matérielavaient
obligé à y mettre fin et que, pendant le repli des forces de sauvetage, deux
aéronefsdes Etats-Unis étaient entrésen collision en un lieu désertique
reculéde l'Iran. Il ajoutait que l'ordre de préparer cette opération de

sauvetage avait étédonnépour des raisons humanitaires, afin de protéger
les intérêts nationaux des Etats-Unis etafin d'atténuerles tensions inter-
nationales. Il disait enfin que l'opération n'étaitinspiréepar aucun sen-
timent d'hostilité contre l'Iran ou le peuple iranien. Les textes de laofficia1documents relating to the operation have been transmitted to the
Court by the United States Agent in response to a request made by the
President of the Court on 25April. Amongst thesedocuments isthe text of
a report made by the United States to the Security Council on 25 April,
"pursuant to Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations". In that
report, the United Statesmaintained that the missionhad been carried out
by it "in exercise of its inherent right of self-defence with the aim of
extricating American nationals who have been and remain the victims of
the Iranian armed attack on OurEmbassy". The Court willrefer further to
this operation later in the present Judgment (paragraphs 93 and 94
below).

33. It is tobe regretted that the Iranian Government has not appeared
before the Courtin order toput forwardits arguments onthe questions of
law and of fact which arise in the present case ;and that, in consequence,
the Court has not had the assistance it might have derived from such
arguments or fromany evidenceadduced insupport ofthem.Nevertheless,
in accordance with its settledjurisprudence, the Court, in applyingArti-

cle 53 of its Statute, must first take up, proprio motu, any preliminary
question, whether of admissibility or ofjurisdiction, that appears from the
information before it to arise in the case and the decision of which might
constitute abar to anyfurther examination of the meritsof theApplicant's
case.TheCourt will,therefore, first address itselfto the considerations put
forward by the Iranian Government in its letters of 9 December 1979and
16March 1980,on the basis of whichitmaintains that the Court ought not
to take cognizance of the present case.
34. The Iranian Government in its letter of 9 December 1979 drew
attention to what it referred to as the "deep rootedness and the essential
character of the Islarnic Revolution of Iran, a revolution of a whole
oppressed nation against its oppressors and their masters". The examina-
tion of the "numerous repercussions" of the revolution, it added, is "a
matter essentially and directly within the national sovereignty of Iran".
However, as the Court pointed out in its Order of 15December 1979,

"a dispute whch concems diplomatic and consular premises and the
detention of internationally protected persons, and involvesthe inter-
pretation or application of multilateral conventions codifying the
international law governing diplomatic and consular relations, is one
which by its verynature fallswithin international jurisdiction" (I.C.J.
Reports 1979, p. 16,para. 25).

In its later letter of 16March 1980the Govemment of Iran confined itself
to repeating the observations on thispoint whichithad made inits letter of
9 December 1979,without putting forward any additional arguments or
explanations. In these circumstances, the Court finds it sufficient here to
recall and confirm its previous statement on the matter in its Order of
15December 1979.déclaration du président Carter et de certains autres documents officiels
relatifsà l'opérationont ététransmis par l'agent des Etats-Unis àla Cour
en réponse a une demande faite par le Présidentde la Cour le 25 avril.
Parmi cesdocuments figureletexte d'un rapport adressépar lesEtats-Unis
au Conseil de sécurité le25 avril<(enapplication del'article51delaCharte
des Nations Unies o.Dans ce rapport, les Etats-Unis affirmaient qu'ils
avaient entrepris la mission <dans l'exercice de leur droit naturel de
légitime défense,en vue de sauver les ressortissants américains quiont été
etdemeurent les victimes del'attaque arméeiraniennecontre notre ambas-

sade )).La Cour reviendra sur cetteopération plusloin dans lepresent arrêt
(paragraphes 93-94 ci-après).
* *

33. Il est regrettable que le Gouvernement de l'Iran ne se soit pas
présenté devantla Cour pour développer sesarguments sur les questions
de droit et de fait qui se posent en l'espèceet qu'en conséquencela Cour
n'aitpas eul'aideque l'exposédecesargumentset toute preuve présentée à
l'appui auraient pu lui apporter. Néanmoins, lorsqu'elle applique l'arti-

cle 53 du Statut, la Cour doit, en vertu d'une jurisprudence constante,
commencer par examiner d'office toute question préliminaire de receva-
bilitéou de compétericeque paraissent souleveren l'espèce les renseigne-
ments à sa disposition et dont le règlement pourrait faire obstacle à la
poursuite de l'examen au fond des thèsesdu demandeur. En conséquence
la Cour examinera d'abord les considérations avancéespar le Gouverne-
ment de l'Iran dans seslettres du 9décembre1979et du 16mars 1980pour
faire valoir que la Cour ne doit pas connaître de la présente affaire.

34. Dans sa lettre du 9 décembre 1979 le Gouvernement de l'Iran a
attirél'attention sur ce qu'il a appelé les racines profondes et l'essence
mêmede la révolutioinislamique de l'Iran, révolutionde toute une nation
oppriméecontre les0:ppresseurset leurs maîtres ».Il ajoutait que l'examen
des multiples répercussions r)de la révolution<(relèveessentiellementet
directement de la souveraineténationale de l'Iran)>.Toutefois, comme la
Cour l'a souligné daris son ordonnance du 15 décembre 1979 :

un différendcancernant des locaux diplomatiques et consulaireset
la détentionde personnes internationalement protégéeset mettant en
jeu l'interprétation oul'application de conventions multilatéralesqui
codifient le droit international en matière de relationsdi~lomatiaues
et consulaires rel.ève,par sa nature même,de lajuridiction interna-
tionale )(C.I.J. .Recueil1979, p. 16, par. 25).

Dans sa lettre ultérieure du 16mars 1980le Gouvernement de l'Iran s'est
borné à répéter cequ'il avait écrit à ce propos le 9 décembre 1979sans
présenter d'arguments ni d'explications complémentaires.Dans ces con-
ditions la Cour considèrequ'il luisuffit de rappeler et confirmerce qu'elle

avait énoncé à ce sujet dans son ordonnance du 15 décembre 1979. 35. In itsletter of 9 December 1979the Government of Iran maintained
that theCourt could not and should not take cognizanceof thepresent case
for another reason, namely that the case submitted to the Court by the
United States, is"confined to what iscalled the question of the 'hostagesof
the American Embassy in Tehran' ". It then went on to explain why it
considered this to preclude the Court from taking cognizance of the
case :

"For thisquestion only represents a marginal and secondary aspect
of an overall problem, one such that it cannot be studied separately,
and which involves, inter aliamore than 25years of continual inter-
ference by the United States in the internal affairs of Iran, the
shameless exploitation of our country, and numerous crimes perpe-
trated against the Iranian people, contrary to and in conflict with al1
international and humanitarian norms.
The problem involved in the conflict between Iran and the United
States is thus not one of the interpretation and the application of the
treaties upon which the American Application is based, but results
from an overall situation containing much more fundamental and

more complex elements. Consequently, theCourtcannot examine the
American Application divorced from its proper context, namely the
whole political dossier of the relations between Iran and the United
States over the last 25 years. This dossier includes,inter alia,al1the
crimesperpetrated in Iranby theAmerican Government, inparticular
the coup d'état of 1953 stirred up and carried out by the CIA, the
overthrow of the lawful national government of Dr. Mossadegh, the
restoration of the Shah and of his régime which was under the control
of American interests, and al1 the social, economic, cultural and
political consequences of the direct interventions in our internal
affairs, as well as grave, flagrant and continuous violations of al1
international norms, committed by the United States in Iran."

36. The Court, however,in itsOrder of 15December 1979,made itclear
that the seizure of the United States Embassy and Consulates and the
detention of internationally protected persons as hostages cannot be con-
sidered as something "secondary" or "marginal", having regard to the
importance of the legalprinciples involved. It also referred to a statement
of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and to Security Council
resolution 457 (1979),as evidencing the importance attached by theinter-
nationalcommunityas a whole to theobservance of those principles in the
present case aswellasitsconcern at thedangerous leveloftension between
Iran and the United States. The Court, at the same time, pointed out that
no provision of the Statute or Rules contemplates that the Court should
decline to take cognizance of one aspect of a dispute merely because that
dispute has other aspects, however important. It further underlined that, if
the Iranian Government considered the alleged activities of the United
States in Iran legally to have a close connection with thesubject-matter of 35. Dans sa lettre du 9 décembre 1979 le Gouvernement de l'Iran a
invoquéun autre mot.ifselon lequel la Cour nepouvait ni nedevait d'après
lui se saisir de la présente espèce, a savoir que l'affaire soumise par les

Etats-Unis est << limitée à la soi-disant question des otages de l'ambas-
sade américaine à Té:héran )).Il expliquait ensuite en quoi, a son avis,cette
circonstance empêchaitla Cour de connaître de l'affaire :

Cette questilonen effet ne représente qu'unélément marginal et
secondaire d'un ]problèmed'ensemble dont ellene saurait êtreétudiée
séparémentet qui englobe entre autres plus de vingt-cinq ans d'ingé-

rences continuelles par les Etats-Unis dans les affaires intérieures de
l'Iran, id'exploitation éhontéede notre pays et de multiples crimes
perpétrés contrele peuple iranien, envers et contre toutes les normes
internationales et humanitaires.
Le problème en cause dans le conflit existant entre l'Iran et les
Etats-Unis ne tie:ntdonc pas de l'interprétationet de l'application des
traitéssur 1esqut:lsse base la requête américainem , ais découled'une
situation d'ensernble comprenant des éléments beaucoup plus fonda-
mentaux etplus complexes. Enconséquence,laCour nepeut examiner
larequlate américaineen dehors de son vrai contexte, à savoir l'en-
semble du dossiexpolitique des relations entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis
au cours de ces vingt-cinq dernières années.Ce dossier comprend
entre autres touii les crimes perpétrésen Iran par le Gouvernement
américain,enpairticulierlecoup d'Etat de 1953fomentéet exécuté par
la CIA, l'évictiondu gouvernement national légitime du docteur

Mossadegh, la remise en place du Chah et de son régime asserviaux
intérêtsaméricainset toutes les conséquencessociales, économiques,
culturelles et politiques des interventions directes dans nos affaires
intérieures,ainsi que des violations graves, flagrantes et perpétuelles
de toutes les normes internationales perpétréespar les Etats-Unis en
Iran.
36. Dans son ordonnance du 15décembre 1979la Cour a néanmoins

soulignéque l'invasionde l'ambassade et desconsulats des Etats-Uniset la
prise en otages de personnes internationalement protégéesne sauraient,en
raison de l'importance des principesjuridiques en cause, êtreconsidérées
comme ayant un caractère ((secondaire 1)ou <<marginal o.Elle a fait éga-
lement étatd'une déclarationdu Secrétairegénéralde l'organisation des
Nations Unies ainsi que de la résolution457(1979)du Conseil de sécurité
comme attestant l'importance que la communautéinternationale dans son
ensemble attache au respect desdits principes en l'espèce et la préoccupa-
tion que lui inspire le niveau dangereux de la tension entre l'Iran et les
Etats-Unis. La Cour a souligné enoutre qu'aucune disposition du Statut
ou du Règlement nelui interdit de sesaisir d'un aspect d'un différendpour
la simple raison que ce différendcomporterait d'autres aspects, si impor-
tants soient-ils. Elle a soulignéenfin que, si le Gouvernement de l'Iran
estimait que les activitésalléguées desEtats-Unisen Iran sont en rapport20 DIPLOMATlC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

the United States' Application, it was opento that Government to present
its own arguments regarding those activities to the Court either by way of
defence in a Counter-Memorial or by way of a counter-claim.

37. The Iranian Government, notwithstanding the terms of the Court's
Order, did not file any pleadings and did not appear before the Court. By
its own choice, therefore, it has forgone the opportunities offered to it

under the Statute and Rules of Courtto submit evidenceand arguments in
support of its contention in regard to the "overall problem". Even in its
later letter of 16March 1980,the Government of Iran confined itself to
repeating what it had said initsletter of9 December 1979,without offering
any explanations in regard to the points to which the Court had drawn
attention inits Order of 15December 1979.It has provided noexplanation
of the reasons why it considers that the violations of diplomatic and
consular lawalleged in the United States'Application cannot be examined
by the Court separately from what it describes as the "overall problem"
involving "more than 25 years of continual interference by the United
States in the interna1 affairs of Iran". Nor has itmade any attempt to
explain, still less define, what connection, legal or factual, there may be
between the "overall problem" of itsgeneral grievances against the United
States and the particular events that gave rise to the United States' claims
in the present case which,inits view,precludesthe separate examination of
those claims by the Court. This was the more necessary because legal
disputes between sovereignStates by their verynature arelikelytooccurin
political contexts, and often form only one element in a wider and long-
standing political dispute between the Statesconcerned. Yet neverhas the
viewbeen put forward before that, because alegaldispute submitted tothe

Court is only one aspect of a political dispute, the Court should decline to
resolve for the parties the legal questions at issue between them. Nor can
any basis for such a viewof the Court's functions orjurisdiction be found
in theCharter or the Statute of theCourt ;if the Court were,contrary toits
settledjurisprudence, to adopt such a view,it would impose a far-reaching
and unwarranted restriction upon the role of the Court in the peaceful
solution of international disputes.

38. It follows that the'considerations and arguments put forward in the
Iranian Government's letters of 9 December 1979and 16March 1980do
not, in the opinion of the Court, disclose any ground on which it should
conclude that it cannot or ought not to take cognizance of the present
case.

39. TheCourt, however, has also thought it right to examine, ex officio,
whether its competence to decide the present case, or the admissibility of
the present proceedings, rnight possibly have been affected by the setting
up of the Commission announced by the Secretary-General of the United PERSONbIEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 20

juridique étroit avecl'objet de la requêtedesEtats-Unis,il lui étaitloisible
de développer à ce sujet sa propre argumentation devant la Cour, soit
comme moyen de défensedans un contre-mémoire soit par la voie d'une
demande reconventionnelle.
37. En dépitdes termes de l'ordonnance de la Cour, le Gouvernement
de l'Iran n'adéposéaucune piècede procédure etn'apas comparu. 11s'est
donc volontairemenl: privéde la possibilitéque lui offraient le Statut et le
Règlement de soumettre des preuves et des arguments à l'appui de ses
thèses sur le problème d'ensemble o.Mêmedans sa dernière lettre du
16mars 1980,il s'esi.borné àréitérer ce qu'il avait affirmle 9 décembre

1979, sans rien dire des points sur lesquels la Cour avait appelé son
attention dans l'ordlonnance du 15décembre 1979. Il n'a pas exposé les
raisons pour lesquelles, selon lui, les violations du droit diplomatique et
consulaire alléguéesdans la requêtedes Etats-Unis ne sauraient êtreexa-
minéespar la Cour indépendamment de ce qu'il appelle un (<problème
d'ensemble englobant <plus de vingt-cinq ans d'ingérences continuelles
par les Etats-Unis dans les affaires intérieuresde l'Iran)).Il n'a pas non
plus essayé d'expliquer, etencore moins de définir,quel pouvait êtreen
droit ou en fait le rapport entre lec problème d'ensemble ))de ses griefs
générauxcontre les Etats-Unis et les événementsparticuliers qui sont à
l'origine des réclama.tionsdes Etats-Unis en l'espèce,rapport qui, d'après
lui, empêcheraitla (Sour d'examiner indépendamment ces réclamations.

Des explications sur ces différentspoints auraient étéd'autant plusnéces-
saires que les différends juridiques entre Etats souverains ont, par leur
nature même,toutes chances de surgir dans des contextes politiques et ne
représentent souvent qu'un élémentd'un différendpolitique plus vaste et
existant de longueda~teentre lesEtats concernés.Nul n'acependantjamais
prétendu que, parce qu'un différendjuridique soumis à la Cour ne cons-
titue qu'un aspect d'un différend politique, la Cour doit se refuser à
résoudredans l'intérêd tesparties lesquestionsjuridiques qui lesopposent.
La Charte et leStatut ne fournissent aucun fondement à cette conception
desfonctions ou de lizjuridiction de la Cour;silaCour. contrairement à sa
jurisprudence constante, acceptait une telle conception, il en résulterait
une restriction considérableet injustifiéede son rôle en matière de règle-

ment pacifique des ,différendsinternationaux.
38. Il s'ensuit que les considérations et arguments présentésdans les
lettres duC;ouverneinent de l'Iran en date des9 décembre 1979et 16mars
1980 ne font appar,aître aucun motif qui obligerait la Cour à conclure
qu'elle ne peut-ni ne doit se saisir de 1: présenteespèce.

39. La Cour a aussi jugéopportun de rechercher d'office si la consti-
tution de la commission annoncée le 20 février 1980 par le Secrétaire
généralde l'organisation des Nations Unies avait pu avoir une incidence
sur sa compétence pour se prononcer en I'espèceou sur la recevabilitéde21 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

Nations on 20 February 1980.As alreadyindicated, the occupation of the

Embassy and detention ofitsdiplomatic and consular staff ashostages was
referred to the United Nations Security Council by the United States on
9 November 1979 and by the Secretary-General on 25November. Four
days later, while the matter was still before the Security Council, the
United States submitted the present Application to the Court together
with a request for the indication of provisional measures. On 4 December,
the Security Council adopted resolution 457 (1979) (the terms of which
have already been indicated in paragraph 28 above), whereby the Council
would "remain actively seized of the matter" and the Secretary-General
was requested to report to it urgently on developments regarding the
efforts he was to make pursuant to the resolution. In announcing the
settingup of the Commission on 20 February 1980,the Secretary-General
stated its terms of reference to be "to undertake a fact-finding mission to
Iran tohear Iran's gnevances and to allowfor an early solution of the crisis
between Iran and the United States" ;and he further stated that it was to
complete its work as soon as possible and submit its report to him. Sub-
sequently, in a messagecabled to the President of the Court on 15March
1980,the Secretary-Generalconfirmed the mandate of the Commission to
be as stated in his announcement of 20 February, adding that the Gov-
ernments of Iranand the United States had "agreed to the establishment of

theCommission on that basis". In this message,the Secretary-General also
informed the Court of the decision of the Commission to suspend its
activities in Tehran and to return to New York on 11March 1980 "to
confer with the Secretary-General with a viewto pursuing its tasks which it
regards as indivisible". The message stated that while, in the circum-
stances, the Commission was not in a position to submit itsreport, it was
prepared to return to Tehran, in accordance with its mandate and the
instructions of the Secretary-General, when the situation required. The
message further stated that the Secretary-General would continue his
efforts, as requested by the Security Council, to search for a peaceful
solution of thecrisis, and would remain in contact with the parties and the
Commission regarding the resumption of its work.

40. Consequently,there can be nodoubt at al1that the SecurityCouncil
was "actively seized of the matter" and that the Secretary-General was
under an express mandate from the Council to use his good officesin the
matter when, on 15December, the Court decided unanimously that it was
competent to entertain the United States' request for an indication of
provisional measures, and proceeded toindicate suchmeasures. Asalready
mentioned the Council met again on 31 December 1979 and adopted
resolution 461(1979). In the preamble to this second resolution the Secu-

rity Council expresslytook into accountthe Court's Order of 15December
1979 indicating provisional measures ; and it does not seem to have
occurred to any member of the Council that there wasor could beanything
irregular in the simultaneous exercise of their respective functions by the
Court and the Security Council. Nor is there in this any cause for surprise.l'instance. Ainsi qu'il a étéindiquéplus haut,la question de l'occupation de
l'ambassade et de la détention en otages de membres de son personnel

diplomatique et consulaire a étéportée devant le Conseil de sécurité,par
les Etats-Unis le 9 novembre 1979 et par le Secrétaire général le25 no-
vembre. Quatre jours plus tard, alors que la question était à l'examen
devant le Conseil, les Etats-Unis ont saisi la Cour de la présente requête
ainsi que d'une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires. Le

4 décembre, le Conseil de sécurité aadopté la résolution 457 (1979) dont
les termes ont déjàétéindiqués (paragraphe 28 ci-dessus). Celle-ci préci-
sait notamment que IleConseil resterait <(activement saisi de la question )>
et demandait au Secrétaire généralde lui faire rapport d'urgence sur les

résultats des efforts qu'il entreprendrait conformément àladite résolution.
En faisantconnaître la constitution de la commission le 20 février1980,le
Secrétaire générala déclaréque son mandat consistait à <(entreprendre
une mission d'établissement des faits en Iran en vue d'entendre lesgriefs de
l'Iran et de permettire une solution rapide de la crise entre l'Iran et les

Etats-Unis ))Il a ajoutéque la commission terminerait ses travaux aussitôt
que possible et lui présenterait un rapport. Le 15 mars 1980, dans un
message adressé au Président de la Cour, le Secrétairegénérala confirmé
que le mandatde la commission étaitcelui qu'il avait annoncéle 20 février

et a préciséque les Gouvernements de l'Iran et des Etats-Unis avaient
acceptéla constitution de la commission sur cette base o. Dans ce mes-
sage le Secrétairegénéralinformait aussi la Cour que la commission avait
décidéde suspendre son activité à Téhéranet de rentrer à New York le
11 mars 1980 pour conférer avec le Secrétaire général envue de pour-

suivre ses tâches, qu'elle considère indivisibles ))Il faisait en outre savoir à
la Cour que, vu les ciirconstances, la commission n'était pas en mesure de
présenter un rapport, mais qu'elle était disposée à retourner à Téhéran
conformément à son mandat et aux instmctions du Secrétaire général

quand la situation l'exigerait. Le message indiquait enfin que le Secrétaire
généralpoursuivrait ses efforts, comme le Conseil de sécuritéle lui avait
demandé, pour rechercher une solution pacifique de la crise et qu'il res-
terait en contact avec lesparties et avecla commission au sujet de la reprise

de sa tâche.
40. En conséquenceilne faitaucun doute que leConseil de sécuritéétait
<(activement saisi de la question 1)et qu'il avait donnéexpressément man-
dat au Secrétairegénéralde prêterses bons offices lorsque, le 15décembre
1979, la Cour a décidé à l'unanimité qu'elle avait compétence pour con-

naître de la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires des Etats-
Unis et a indiquéde telles mesures. Comme il a déjàétésignalé, leConseil
s'est réuni de nouveau le 31 décembre 1979 et a adopté la résolution 461
(1979). Dans le préambule de cette seconde résolution, le Conseil de

sécurité tenaitexpre:çsémentcompte de l'ordonnance de la Cour en indi-
cation de mesures ca~nservatoiresdu 15décembre 1979 ;il ne semble être
venu à l'esprit d'auciin membre du Conseil qu'il y eût ou pût y avoir rien
d'irrégulier dans 1'e:iercicesimultané par la Cour et par le Conseil de
sécuritéde leurs fonctions respectives. Le fait n'est d'ailleurs pas surpre-22 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

Whereas Article 12of the Charter expresslyforbids the General Assembly

to make any recommendation with regard to a dispute or situation while
the Security Coüncil isexercising itsfunctions in respect of that dispute or
situation,no such restriction is placed on the functioning of the Court by
any provision of either theCharter or the Statute of the Court. The reasons
are clear. It is for the Court, the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, to resolveany legalquestionsthat may be in issuebetween parties
to a dispute ;and the resolution of such legal questions by the Court may
be an important,and sometimes decisive, factor in promoting thepeaceful
settlement of the dispute. This is indeed recognized by Article 36 of the
Charter, paragraph 3 of which specifically provides that :

"In making recommendations under thisArticle the SecurityCoun-
cil should also take into consideration that legal disputes should as a
general rule be referred by the parties to the International Court of
Justice in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the
Court."
41. In the present instance the proceedings before the Court continued
in accordance with the Statute and Rules of Court and, on 15January
1980,the United States filed its Memorial. The time-limit fixedfordelivery
of Iran's Counter-Memorial then expired on 18February 1980without
Iran's having filed a Counter-Memorial or having made a request for the

extension of the time-limit. Consequently, on the following day the case
became ready for hearing and, pursuant to Article 31 of the Rules, the
views of the Applicant State were requested regarding the date for the
opening of the oral proceedings. On 19 February 1980 the Court was
informed by the United States Agent that, owing to the delicate stage of
negotiations bearing upon the release of the hostages in the United States
Embassy, he would be grateful if the Court for the time being would defer
settinga date fortheopening of the oral proceedings. Onthe verynext day,
20 February, the Secretary-General announced the establishment of the
above-mentioned Commission, which commenced its work in Tehran on
23 February. Asked on 27 February to clarify the position of the United
States in regard to the future procedure, the Agent stated that the Com-
mission would not address itself to the claims submitted by the United
States to the Court.The United States, he said, continued to be anxious to
secure an early judgment on the merits, and he suggested 17March as a
convenient date for the opening of the oral proceedings. At the same time,
however, he added that consideration of the well-being of the hostages
might lead the United States to suggest a later date.The Iranian Govern-
ment was then asked, in a telex message of 28 February, for any views it

might wish to express as to the date for the opening of the hearings,
mention being made of 17March as one possible date. No reply had been
received from the Iranian Government when, on 10March, the Cornmis-
sion, unable to complete its mission, decided to suspend its activities in
Tehran and to return to New York.
42. On 11March, that is immediately upon the departure of the Com- PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 22

nant. Alors que l'article 12de la Charte interdit expressément à 1'Assem-
bléegénérale de faire une recommandation au sujet d'un différendou
d'une situation à l'égarddesquels le Conseil remplit ses fonctions, ni la
Charte ni le Statut n'apportent de restriction semblable à l'exercice des
fonctions de laCour. Lesraisons en sont évidentes :c'estàla Cour, organe
judiciaire principalclesNations Unies, qu'il appartient de résoudre toute

question juridique pouvant opposer des parties à un différend ; et la
résolution de ces qiiestions juridiques par la Cour peut jouer un rôle
important et parfois déterminantdans lerèglementpacifique du différend.
C'estd'ailleurscequr:reconnaît l'article 36,paragraphe 3,de laCharte,qui
prévoitexpressément :

<(En faisant les recommandations prévues au présent article, le
Conseil de sécuritédoit aussi tenir comptedu fait que, d'une manière
généralel,esdifférendsd'ordrejuridique devraient êtresoumis par les
partiesà la Cour internationale de Justice conformément aux dispo-
sitions du Statut de la Cour. ))
41. En l'occurrence l'instance devant la Cour s'est poursuivie confor-

mément auStatut et au Règlementet,le 15janvier 1980,lesEtats-Unisont
déposé leurmémoire.Ledélaifixépour laprésentationdu contre-mémoire
iranien a expiréle 18février1980sans que l'Iran eût déposéun contre-
mémoireni demandéune prorogation de délai.En conséquencel'affaire
s'est trouvée en état le lendemain et, en application de l'article 31 du
Règlement,1'Etatdemandeur a étéconsulté au sujet de la date d'ouverture
de la procédure orale. Le 19 février 1980 l'agent des Etats-Unis a fait
connaître a la Cour que, en raison du stade délicatoù en étaientcertaines
négociationstouchai~t à la libération des otagesde l'ambassade des Etats-
Unis, illuisauraitrkde bien vouloir différerpour lemoment la fixation de
la date d'ouverturedes audiences. Le lendemain, 20 février,le Secrétaire
générala annoncéla constitution dela commission mentionnéeplus haut,
qui a entamé ses travaux à Téhéranle 23 février. Priéle 27 févrierde

préciser l'attitude~esEtats-Unis à l'égardde la suite de la procédure,
l'agent a déclaréque la commission ne s'occuperait pas des demandes
soumises par les Etaits-Unis a la Cour. Les Etats-Unis, disait-il, tenaient
toujours àaboutir rapidement à une décisionsur le fond et il suggérait le
17mars comme datc:pouvant convenir pour l'ouverture des audiences. Il
ajoutait cependant que la préoccupation que leur inspirait le sort des
otages pourrait condluireles Etats-Unisà suggérerune date ultérieure.Le
Gouvernement de l'Iran a alors étéprié,per message télexdu 28 février,de
faire connaître les vues qu'il pourrait souhaiter exprimer sur la date de
l'ouverture des audiences, le 17mars étant mentionnécomme une date
possible. Aucune réponseduGouvernement de l'Iran n'étaitparvenue à la
Cour le 10mars, date à laquelle la commission, nepouvant mener à bien sa

mission, a décidéde suspendre son activité a Téhéran etde rentrer à New
York.

42. Le 11mars, c'est-à-dire immédiatement aprèsle départde la com-23 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

mission fromTehran, the United Statesnotified the Court of its readiness
to proceed with the hearings, suggesting that they should begin on
17March. A further telexwas accordinglysent tothe Iranian Government
on 12March informing it of the United States' request andstatingthat the
Court would meet on 17March to determine the subsequent procedure.
The Iranian Government's replywas contained in the letter of 16March to
which the Court has already referred (paragraph 10above). In that letter,
while making no mention of the proposed oral proceedings, the Iranian
Govemment reiterated the reasons advanced in its previous letter of
9 December 1979for considering that the Court ought not to take cogni-
zance of thecase. Theletter contained no reference to theCommission, and

still less any suggestion that thecontinuance of the proceedings before the
Court might be affected by the existence of the Commission or the man-
dategiven to the Secretary-General bythe SecurityCouncil. Having regard
to the circumstances which theCourt has described, it can find no trace of
any understanding on the part of either the United States or Iran that the
establishment of the Commission might involve a postponement of al1
proceedings before the Court until the conclusion of the work of the
Commission and of the Security Council's consideration of the matter.
43. The Commission, as previously observed, was established to under-
take a "fact-finding mission to Iran to hear Iran's gnevances and to allow
for an early solution of the crisis between Iran and the United States"
(emphasisadded). It was not set up by the Secretary-General as a tribunal
empowered to decide the matters of fact or of lawin dispute between Iran
andthe United States ;nor wasitssetting up accepted by them on any such
basis. On the contrary, he created the Commission rather as an organ or

instrument for mediation, conciliation or negotiation to provide a means
of easing the situation of crisis existing between the two countries ;and
this,clearly, was the basis on which Iranandthe United States agreed toits
being set up. The establishment of the Commission by the Secretary-
Generai with the agreement of the two States cannot, therefore, be con-
sidered initself asinany wayincompatible with the continuance ofparallel
proceedings before the Court. Negotiation, enquiry, mediation, concilia-
tion, arbitration and judicial settlement are enumerated together in Arti-
cle 33 of the Charteras means for the peaceful settlement of disputes. As
waspointed out intheAegeanSea ContinentalShelfcase, thejurisprudence
of the Court provides various examples of cases in which negotiations and
recourse tojudicial settlement by the Court have been pursuedparipassu.
In that case, in which also the dispute had been referred to the Security
Council, the Court held expressly that "the fact that negotiations are being
actively pursued during the present proceedings is not, legally, any
obstacle to the exercise by the Court of its judicial function" (I.C.J.

Reports 1978, p. 12,para. 29).

44. Itfollows that neither themandate givenby the Security Council to
the Secretary-General in resolutions 457 and 461 of 1979,nor the setting
up of the Commission by the Secretary-General, can be considered asmission de Téhéran,les Etats-Unis ont informélaCour qu'ilsétaient prêts
à plaider et ont suggéréque les audiences commencent le 17 mars. Un
nouveau messagetélexaété expédié le 12mars au Gouvernement de I'Iran
pour l'informer de lademande desEtats-Unis et pour indiquer que laCour
se réunirait le17mars en vue d'arrêter la suitede la procédure. Le Gou-
vernement de l'Iran a répondupar une lettre du 16mars déjàcitéepar la
Cour (paragraphe 101ci-dessus), où, sans toucher mot de la procédure

orale, ilréitéraitlesraisons qu'ilavaitavancéesdans salettreprécédentedu
9décembre 1979 pour soutenir que la Cour ne devait pas connaître de
l'affaire.l ne faisait aucune allusionà la commission, et pas davantage à
l'idéeque l'existence:de celle-ci ou le mandat confiépar le Conseil de
sécuritéau Secrétairegénéralpuissent influesrurlapoursuite de l'instance.
Dans les circonstances ainsi évoquéesla Cour ne découvreaucun élément
faisant apparaître qui:les Etats-Unis ou l'Iran aient cru comprendre que la
constitution de la cclmrnissionpouvait entraîner la suspension de toute
procédure devant la (Couraussi longtemps que les travaux de la commis-
sion et l'examen de la question par le Conseil de sécuritén'auraient pas
abouti.

43. Comme on l'a vu précédemment,la commission a étécrééepour
entreprendre une nussion d'établissementdes faits en Iran en vue d'en-
tendre les griefs de l'Iran et de'permettre une solution rapide de la crise
entre I'Iran et les Etats-Unis))(les italiques sont de la Cour). Elle n'a pas
étécrééepar le Secrktaire généralen tant que tribunal chargé de se pro-
noncer sur les questions de fait ou de droit en litige entre l'Iran et les
Etats-Unis ;cesdeux.Etats n'ont d'ailleurs pas acceptésa constitution sur
une telle base. Au contraire, le Secrétaire généraa l créé la commission
comme étantun organeou un instrument demédiation, de conciliation ou
de négociation,envued'atténuer lacriseentre lesdeux pays ;et c'estlà, de
toute évidence, labase sur laquelle l'Iran et les Etats-Unis ont consenti à
son établissement. La constitution de la commission par le Secrétaire
général avec l'accorddes deux Etats ne saurait donc en aucune façon être

considéréecomme incompatible en elle-même avecla poursuite d'une
procédure parallèle devant la Cour. La négociation, l'enquête, la média-
tion, la conciliation, l'arbitrage et le règlement judiciaire sont énumérés
ensemble à l'article 33de la Charte comme moyens de règlementpacifique
des différends. Ainsi qu'il a étésoulignédans l'affaire du Plateau conti-
nentalde la mer Egét:lajurisprudence de la Cour fournit plusieurs exem-
ples d'affaires dans lesquelles négociationet règlement judiciaire se sont
poursuivis en mêmetemps. Dans ladite affaire, où le Conseil de sécurité
étaitégalement saisidu différend, laCour a conclu expressémentque (le
fait que des négociations sepoursuivent activement pendant la procédure
actuelle ne constitue pas,en droit, un obstacleàl'exercicepar la Courde sa
fonction judiciaire (C.I.J. Recueil 1978, p. 12,par. 29).
44. Il s'ensuit que ni le mandat donné par le Conseil de sécurité au

Secrétairegénérad l ans lesrésolutions457et461de 1979,nilaconstitution
de la commission piIr le Secrétaire général nesauraient êtreconsidérésconstituting any obstacle to the exerciseof the Court'sjurisdiction in the
present case. It further follows that the Court must now proceed, in
accordance with Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Statute, to determine
whether it has jurisdiction to decide the present case and whether the
United States' claimsare well founded in fact and in law.

45. Article 53 of the Statute requires the Court, before deciding in
favour of an Applicant's claim, to satisfy itself that it hasjurisdiction, in
accordance with Articles 36and 37,empowering it to do so. In the present
case the principal claims of the United States relate essentially to alleged
violations by Iran of itsobligations to the United States under the Vienna
Conventions of 1961on Diplornatic Relations and of 1963on Consular
Relations.With regard to theseclaims the United Stateshas invoked as the
basis for the Court's jurisdiction Article1of the Optional Protocols con-
cerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes which accompany these
Conventions. The United Nations publication Multilateral Treaties in
respectof whichthe Secretaty-GeneralPerformsDepositoryFunctionslists

both Iran and the United States as parties to the Vienna Conventions of
1961and 1963,as also to their accompanying Protocols concerning the
Compulsory Settlement of Disputes, and in each case without any reser-
vation to the instrument in question. The Vienna Conventions, whch
codify the law of diplomatic and consular relations, state principles and
rules essential for the maintenance of peaceful relations between States
and accepted throughout the world by nations of al1creeds, cultures and
political complexions. Moreover, the Iranian Government has not main-
tained in its communications to the Court that the two Vienna Conven-
tions and Protocols are not in force as between Iran and the United States.
Accordingly, as indicated in the Court's Order of 15December 1979,the
Optional Protocols manifestly provide a possible basis for the Court's
jurisdiction, with respect to the United States' claimsunder the Vienna
Conventions of 1961 and 1963. It only remains, therefore, to consider
whether the present dispute in fact falls within the scope of their provi-
sions.

46. The terms of Article 1, which are the same in the two Protocols,
provide :

"Disputes arising out of the interpretation or application of the
Convention shall lie within the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Inter-
national Court of Justice and may accordingly be brought before the
Court by an application made by any party to the dispute being a
Party to the present Protocol."

The United States' claims here in question concern alleged violations by
Iran of its obligationsunder several articles of the Vienna Conventions of
1961and 1963with respect to the privileges and immunities of the per-comme des obstacles 21l'exercicede lajuridiction de laCour en l'espèce. La

Caur doit donc maintenant examiner, conformément à l'article 53, para-
graphe 2,du Statut, sielleacompétencepour seprononcer en I'espèceet si
les conclusions des Etats-Unis sont fondées en fait et en droit.

45. En vertu de l'article 53duStatut, la Cour doit, avant d'adjuger un
demandeur ses concluisions,s'assurer qu'elle possèdelacompétencenéces-
saire aux termes des articles 36 et 37.En la présenteespèce,lesprincipales
demandes des Etats-Unis se rapportent essentiellement au fait que l'Iran
aurait manquéaux obligations dont il est tenu àl'égarddes Etats-Unis en
vertu des conventions de Vienne de 1961sur lesrelationsdiplomatiqueset

de 1963sur les relations consulaires. Les Etats-Unis ont invoqué comme
base de lacompétencedelaCour pourconnaître decesdemandes l'article 1
du protocole de signadure facultativeconcernant le règlementobligatoire
desdifférendsquiaccompagnechacune decesconventions. Lapublication
des Nations Unies intitulée Traitésmultilatérauxpour lesquelsle Secrétaire
généralremplit les fonctions de dépositaire cite-l'han et les Etats-Unis
comme parties aux deux conventionssusmentionnéeset à leurs protocoles
respectifs concernani: le règlement obligatoire des différends, sans que,
dans chaque cas, l'instrument viséait fait de leur part l'objet de réserves.
Les conventions de Vienne, qui codifient le droit des relations diploma-
tiques et consulaires. énoncent les principes et règlesindispensables au
maintien de relations pacifiques entre Etats et acceptésdans le monde
entier par des nations de toutes croyances, cultures et appartenances

politiques. Quiplus est,leGouvernement del'Iran n'apassoutenu dans ses
communications à la Cour que les deux conventions et protocoles de
Vienne ne sont pas en vigueur entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis. Par consé-
quent, ainsi qu'il était indiquédans l'ordonnance de la Cour du 15 dè-
cembre 1979,les protocolesfacultatifsfournissent manifestement unebase
sur laquelle lacompktence de la Cour pour connaître des demandes pré-
sentéespar les Etats-1Jnis envertu desconventions de Viennede 1961et de
1963pourrait êtrefondée.Il reste à examiner sile présent différendrelève
effectivement de leurs dispositions.
46. Le texte de l'article1,qui est le mêmedans les deux protocoles, est
ainsi rédigé :

<<Les différendsrelatifs à l'interprétation ouà l'application de la
Convention relèvent de la compétence obligatoire de la Cour inter-
nationale deJustice, quià cetitre, pourraêtresaisiepar unerequêtede
toute partie au différendqui sera elle-mêmePartie au présent Proto-
cole. ))

Les demandesdes Et.ats-Unis présentement en cause visent des violations
qu'aurait commises l'Iran desobligationsrésultant deplusieurs articles des
conventions de Vienne de 1961et de 1963et ayant trait aux privilègesetsonnel, the inviolability of the premises and archives, and the provision of
facilities for the performance of the functions of the United States Em-
bassy and Consulates in Iran. In so far as its claims relate to two private
individuals held hostage in the Embassy, the situation of these individuals
falls under the provisions of the Vienna Convention of 1961guaranteeing
the inviolability of the premises of embassies, and of Article 5 of the 1963
Convention concerning the consular functions of assisting nationals and

protecting and safeguarding their interests. By their very nature al1these
claims concern theinterpretation or application of oneorother of the two
Vienna Conventions.

47. The occupation of the United States Embassy by militants on
4 November 1979and the detention of its personnel as hostages was an
event of akind toprovoke an immediate protest fromanygovernment, asit
did from the United States Government, which despatched a special
emissary to Iran to deliver aformal protest. Although the specialemissary,
denied al1contact with Iranian officials, never entered Iran, the Iranian
Government was left in nodoubt as to the reaction of the United States to
the takingover ofits Embassy and detention ofitsdiplomatic and consular
staff as hostages. Indeed, the Court was informed that the United States
was meanwhile making its views known to the Iranian Government
through itsCharge d'affaires,who has been kept since4 November 1979in
the Iranian Foreign Ministry itself, where he happened to be with two
other members of his mission during the attack on the Embassy. In any
event, by a letter of 9November 1979, the United States brought the
situation in regard to its Embassy before the Security Council. The Iranian
Government did not take any part in the debates on the matter in the

Council, and it was still refusing to enter into any discussions on the
subject when, on 29 November 1979,the United States filed the present
Application submitting itsclaims to the Court. It is clear that on that date
there existed adispute arising out ofthe interpretationor application of the
Vienna Conventions and thus one falling within the scope of Article 1of
the Protocols.

48. Articles II and III of the Protocols, it isrue, provide that within a
period of two months after one party has notified its opinion to the other
that a dispute exists, the parties may agree either: (a)"to resort not to the
International Court of Justice but to an arbitral tribunal", or(b)"to adopt
a conciliation procedure before resorting to the International Court of
Justice". The terms of Articles II and III however, when read in conjunc-
tion with those of Article 1and with the Preamble to the Protocols, make it
crystal clear that they are not to be understood as laying down a precon-
dition of the applicability of the precise and categorical provision con-
tained in Article 1establishing the compulsoryjurisdiction of the Court in
respect of disputes arising out of the interpretation or application of theimmunitésdu personnel de I'ambassade et desconsulats des Etats-Unis en
Iran, a l'inviolabilitéde leurs locaux et de leurs archives eà l'octroi de
facilitéspour I'accorriplissementdeleursfonctions. Dans la mesure où ces
demandes concernent deux simples ressortissants des Etats-Unis détenus
en otages àI'ambassade, lasituation de cespersonnes relèveégalementdes
dispositions delaconvention de Viennede 1961garantissant l'inviolabilité
des locaux des ambassades, ainsi que des dispositions de l'article 5 de la
convention de 1963relatives aux fonctions consulaires en matièred'assis-
tance aux ressortissants et de protection ou sauvegarde de leurs intérêts.
Par leur nature même,toutes ces demandes mettent en cause I'inter-

prétation ou l'application de l'une ou l'autre des deux conventions de
Vienne.
47. L'occupation de I'ambassade des Etats-Unis par des militants le
4 novembre 1979et la détention de membres de son personnel en otages
étaientdes événementsde nature àsusciter lesprotestations immédiatesde
tout gouvernement, et c'estbien ainsique leGouvernement des Etats-Unis
a réagiquand ilaenvoyéenIran un représentantspécialchargéde remettre
une protestation fornnelle.Bienque ce représentant,sevoyant refuser tout
contact avecdespersonnalités iraniennes, ne soitjamais alléjusqu'en Iran,
le Gouvernement de l'Iran ne pouvait avoir aucun doute quant à la réac-
tion des Etats-Unis àla prise de leur ambassade età la détentionen otages

de membres de leurpersonnel diplomatique et consulaire. De fait, la Cour
a étéinforméeque le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis avait dans le même
temps fait connaître ses vues au Gouvernement de l'Iran par I'intermé-
diaire de son chargé d'affaires,qui étaitretenu depuis le 4 novembre 1979
dans le bâtiment mêrnedu ministèredes affairesétrangèresd'Iran, où il se
trouvait avec deux membres de sa mission pendant l'attaque de I'ambas-
sade. De toute maniè:re,par lettredu 9 novembre 1979.les Etats-Unisont
saisi le Conseil de sécuritéde la situation concernant leur ambassade. Le
Gouvernement de I'iran n'a Das ris Dart aux débats du Conseil sur la
question et il persistait encore dans son refus d'entamer le moindre pour-
parler en la matière au moment où les Etats-Unis ont déposé,le 29 no-

vembre 1979,la présente requête saisissant la Cour de leursdemandes. De
toute évidenceil existaitàcette date un différend relatià l'interprétation
ou à l'application de:;conventions de Vienne et entrant donc dans lecadre
de l'article des protocoles.
48. 11est vrai que les articles II et IIIde ces instruments prévoientque,
dans un délaidedeux.moisaprèsqu'une partie anotifié à l'autre qu'il existe
à son avis un litige, les parties peuvent convenir d'un commun accord :
a) <d'adopter, au lieu du recours à la Cour internationale de Justice, une
procédure devant un tribunal d'arbitrage o.ou b) de recourir à une
procédure de conciliation avant d'en appeler à la Cour internationale de
Justice D.Toutefois, si le texte des articles II et III est examinéen même

temps que celuide l'article1et du préambule desprotocoles, il tombe sous
lesensqu'ilnefaut p.asyvoir unecondition préalable àI'applicabilitéde la
disposition précise etcatégoriquede l'article 1qui prévoitla compétence
obligatoire de la Cour pour connaître des différends relatifsà l'interpré-26 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

Viema Convention in question. Articles II and III provide only that, asa
substitute for recourse to the Court, the parties may agree upon resort
either to arbitration or to conciliation. It follows,first,that Articles II and
III have no application unless recourse to arbitration or conciliation has
been proposed by one of the parties to the dispute and the other has

expressed its readiness to consider the proposal. Secondly, it follows that
only then may the provisions in those articles regarding a two months'
period come into play, and function asa time-limit upon the conclusion of
the agreement as to the organization of the alternative procedure.

49. In the present instance, neither of the parties to the dispute pro-
posed recourse to either of the two alternatives, before the filing of the
Application or at any time aftenvards. On the contrary, the Iranian
authorities refused to enter into any discussion of the matter with the
United States, and this could only be understood by the United States as
ruling out,in limine,any question of arriving at an agreement to resort to
arbitration or conciliationunder Article II or Article III of the Protocols,
instead of recourse tothe Court. Accordingly,when the United States filed
its Application on 29November 1979,it was unquestionably free to have
recourse to Article 1 of the Protocols, and to invoke it as a basis for

establishing the Court'sjurisdiction with respect to its claims under the
Vienna Conventions of 1961 and 1963.

50. However,theUnited Statesalso presents claimsinrespectofalleged
violations by Iran of Articles II, paragraph 4, XIII, XVIII and XIX of the
Treaty of Arnity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights of 1955
between the United States and Iran, which entered into force on 16June
1957. With regard to these claims the United States has invoked para-
graph 2 of Article XXI of the Treaty as the basis for the Court'sjurisdic-
tion. The claims of the United States under this Treaty overlap in con-
siderable measure with its claims under the two Vienna Conventions and
more especially the Convention of 1963. In ths respect, therefore, the
dispute between the United States andIran regarding thoseclaimsisat the

same time a dispute arising out of the interpretation or application of the
Vienna Conventions which falls within Article 1of their Protocols. It was
for this reason that in itsOrder of 15December 1979indicating provi-
sional measures the Court did not find it necessary to enter into the
question whether Article XXI, paragraph 2,of the 1955Treaty might also
have provided a basis for the exerciseof itsjurisdiction in the present case.
But taking into account that Article II, paragraph 4, of the 1955Treaty
provides that "nationals of either High Contracting Party shallreceivethe
most constant protection and security within the territories of the other
High Contracting Party. ..", the Court considers that at the present stage
ofthe proceedings that Treaty has importance inregard to theclaimsof the
United States in respect of the two private individuals said to be held PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 26

tation ou à l'application de la convention de Vienne dont il s'agit. Les
articles II et III se bornent stipuler que les partiespeuvent convenir de
recourir à l'arbitrage ouà la conciliation comme procédurede remplace-
ment de la saisine de la Cour.Il s'ensuit que, premièrement, les articles II
et III ne s'appliquent que si l'une des parties au différenda proposé un

recours à l'arbitrage ouà la conciliation et si l'autre partie s'est déclarée
prête àétudier cetteproposition. Deuxièmement, c'est seulementen cecas
que les dispositions de ces articles concernant un délaide deux mois
entrent enjeu et font intervenir une limite de temps pour la conclusion de
l'accord sur 1'organis.ationde la procédure de remplacement.
49. En l'espèceaucune des parties au différend n'a proposé d'avoir
recours à l'une ou l'autre de ces voies, que ce soit avant le dépôt de la
requêteou à une date ultérieure.Bienau contraire, lesautorités iraniennes
se sont absolument irefuséesà discuter la question avec les Etats-Unis,
attitude qui ne pouvait êtrecomprise par cesderniersque comme écartant
d'emblée touteperspective d'accord en vuede recourir à l'arbitrage ouàla

conciliation,en application de I'articleII ou de l'article III des protocoles,
au lieu de saisir laiur.Par conséquent,lorsquelesEtats-Unis ont déposé
leur requête du29 novembre 1979,ilsavaient sans nul doute la facultéde
mettre en Œuvre l'article1des protocoles et d'invoquer cet article comme
fondement dela compétencede la Courpour connaître de leurs demandes
au titre des conventions de Vienne de 1961et de 1963.

50. Les Etats-Unis formulent cependant d'autres demandes au motif

que l'Iran aurait violé les articlesII, paragraphe 4, XIII, XVIII et XIX du
traité d'amitié,de commerce et de droits consulaires de 1955 entre les
Etats-Unis et l'Iran, entré en vigueur le 16juin 1957. Pour ce faire, ils
invoquent l'articleXXI, paragraphe 2,decetraitécomme fondement de la
compétence de la Cour. Lesdemandes des Etats-Unis au titre dudit traité
coïncident dans une très large mesure avec celles que se rattachent aux
deux conventions de Vienneet Llus&articulièrement à cellede 1963.De ce
point de vuele différendexistant à ce sujet entre lesEtats-Uniset l'Iran est
donc aussi un différend relatif à l'interprétation ouà l'application des
conventions deVienrieet relèvedel'article 1deleursprotocoles. C'est pour
cetteraisonaue. dans l'ordonnance du 15décembre1979Darlaauelle ellea

indiquédes Lesures conservatoires, la Cour n'a pas cru devoir>echercher
si l'article XXI,paragraphe 2, du traitéde 1955pouvait lui aussi servir de
fondement àl'exercicede sa compétence en l'affaire. Etant donné cepen-
dant que l'article II, paragraphe 4, du traité de 1955 prévoit que (les
ressortissants de chacune des Hautes Parties contractantes bénéficieront
de la manière la plus constante de la protection et de la sécuritédans les
territoires de l'autre :HautePartie contractantO,la Cour considèrequ'au
stade actuel de l'instance ce traité peut présenter de l'importance par
rapport aux demandes relatives aux deux simples ressortissants des Etats-
Unis qui seraient détenusen otages en Iran. La Cour va donc examiner27 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (NDGMENT)

hostage in Iran. Accordingly, the Court willnow consider whether a basis
for the exercise of its jurisdiction with respect to the alleged violations
of the 1955 Treaty may be found in Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the
Treaty.
51. Paragraph 2 of that Article reads :

"Any dispute between the High Contracting Parties as to the inter-
pretation or application of the present Treaty, not satisfactorily
adjusted by diplomacy, shall be submitted to the International Court
of Justice, unless the High Contracting Parties agree to settlement by
some other pacific means."

As previously pointed out, when the United States filed itsApplication on

29 November 1979,its attempts to negotiate with Iran in regard to the
overrunning of its Embassy and detention of itsnationals as hostages had
reached a deadlock, owing to the refusal of the Iranian Government to
enter into any discussion of the matter. ln consequence, there existed at
that date not only a dispute but, beyond any doubt, a "dispute. .. not
satisfactorily adjusted by diplomacy" within the meaning of Article XXI,
paragraph 2,of the 1955Treaty ;and ths dispute comprised, interalia,the
matters that are the subject of the United States' claims under that
Treaty.
52. The provision made in the 1955Treaty for disputes as to its inter-
pretation orapplication to be referred to the Court is similar to the system
adopted in the Optional Protocols to the Vienna Conventions which the
Court has already explained. Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the Treaty
establishes thejurisdiction of the Court as compulsory for such disputes,
unless theparties agree to settlement by some other means. In the present

instance, as in the case of the Optional Protocols, the immediate and total
refusa1 of the Iranian authorities to enter into any negotiations with the
United States excluded in limine any question of an agreement to have
recourse to "some other pacific means" for the settlement of the dispute.
Consequently, under the terms of Article XXI, paragraph 2, the United
States was free on 29 November 1979 to invoke its provisions for the
purpose of referring its claims against Iran under the 1955Treaty to the
Court. While that Article does not provide in express terms that either
party may bring a case to the Court by unilateral application, it isevident,
as the United States contended inits Memorial, that this iswhat theparties
intended. Provisions drawn in similar terms are very common in bilateral
treaties of arnity or of establishment, and the intention of the parties in
accepting such clauses is clearly to provide for such a right of unilateral
recourse to the Court, in the absence of agreement to employ some other
pacific means of settlement.

53. The point has also been raised whether, having regard to certain
counter-measures taken by the United States vis-à-visIran, it isopen to the
United States to rely on the Treaty of Arnity, Economic Relations, andmaintenant si sa comipétencepour connaître des violations du traitéde
1955alléguéespar le 'demandeur peut être fondéesurl'article XXI, para-
graphe 2, de ce traité.

51. Le paragraphe 2 est ainsi conçu :

<<Tout différend qui pourrait s'éleverentre les Hautes Parties
contractantes quant à l'interprétation ou à l'application du présent
Traitéet qui ne pourrait pas êtreréglé d'une manière satisfaisante par
la voie diplomatique sera porté devant la Cour internationale de
Justice, à moins que les Hautes Parties contractantes ne conviennent

de le réglerpar d'autres moyens pacifiques. i)
Il adéjà étésoulignéq,ue,lorsque lesEtats-Unisontdéposéleurrequêtedu
29 novembre 1979,leurs tentatives de négociationsavec l'Iran au sujet de
l'invasion de leur am'bassadeet de la détention de leurs ressortissants en

otages avaient abouti à une impasse, le Gouvernement de l'Iran ayant
refusétoute discussion. Il existait donc à cette date non seulement un
différend mais,sans aucun doute, un différend..qui ne[pouvait]pas être
régléd'une manière satisfaisante par la voie diplomatique i)au sens de
l'articleX1, paragraphe 2, du traité de 1955 ; et ce différend portait
notamment sur lesmatièresfaisant l'objetdes demandes présentéespar les
Etats-Unis en vertu de ce traité.
52. La disposition du traité de 1955 qui prévoit que les différends
relatifsà son interprktation ou à son application seront soumis àla Cour
établitun systèmeanalogue àcelui des protocoles de signature facultative
aux conventions de 'Vienne,que la Cour a déjàanalysé. L'article XXI,

paragraphe 2,du traitéprévoitla compétence obligatoirede la Cour pour
connaître de ces diffkrends, à moins que les parties ne conviennentde les
réglerpar quelque autre méthode. Commedans le cas des protocoles de
signature facultative, le refus immédiat et total des autorités iraniennes
d'entamer des négociations avec les Etats-Unis a éliminé d'emblée en
l'occurrence toute pcissibilitéd'accord pour recourir à <d'autres moyens
pacifiques i)de règlementdu litige. Par conséquent,le 29 novembre 1979,
les Etats-Unis avaient la faculté d'invoquer les dispositions de l'ar-
ticle XXI, paragraphe 2, du traitéde 1955 aux fins de saisir la Cour de
leursréclamations contre l'Iran en vertu de ce traité. Cet article neprévoit
certes pas en termes exprès que l'une oul'autre des parties peut saisir la

Cour par requête unilatérale, maisilest évidentque,commeles Etats-Unis
l'ont soutenu dans leur mémoire, c'est bien ainsique les parties I'enten-
daient. Des dispositions conçues dans des termes similaires sont très cou-
rantes dans lestraité:;bilatéraux d'amitiéou d'établissementet l'intention
des parties, lorsqu'elles acceptent ces clauses, est sans aucun doute de se
réserver cedroit de s'adresser unilatéralement à laCour faute d'accord en
vue de recourir à un autre mode de règlement pacifique.
53. La question a aussi étéposéede savoir si, en raison de certaines
contre-mesures prises par eux à l'égardde l'Iran, les Etats-Unis étaient
fondés àinvoquer le traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de droits consulairesConsular Rights in the present proceedings. However, al1the measures in
question were taken by the United States after the seizure of its Embassy
by an armed group and subsequent detention of its diplomatic and con-
sular staff as hostages. They were measures taken in response to what the
United States believed to be grave and manifest violations of international
lawby Iran, includingviolations of the 1955Treaty itself.In any event,any
alleged violation of the Treaty by either party could not have the effect of
precludingthat party from invoiung the provisions of the Treaty concern-
ing pacific settlement of disputes.

54. No suggestion has been made by Iran that the 1955Treaty was not
inforce on 4 November 1979when the United States Embassywasoverrun
and its nationals taken hostage, or on 29 November when the United
States subrnitted the dispute to the Court. The very purpose of a treaty of
amity, and indeed of a treaty of establishment, is to promote friendly
relations between the two countnes concerned, and between their two
peoples, more especially by mutual undertakings to ensure the protection
and secunty of their nationals in each other's terntory. It ispreciselywhen

difficulties arise that the treaty assumes its greatest importance, and the
whole object of Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the 1955 Treaty was to
establish themeans for arriving at a friendly settlement of such difficulties
by the Court or by other peaceful means. It would, therefore, be incom-
patible with the whole purpose of the 1955Treaty if recourse to the Court
under Article XXI, paragraph 2, were now to be found not to be open to
the parties precisely at the moment when such recourse was most needed.
Furthermore, although the machinery for the effective operation of the
1955Treaty has, no doubt, now been impaired by reason of diplomatic
relations between the two countries having been broken off by the United
States, its provisions remain part of the corpus of law applicable between
the United States and Iran.

55. The United Stateshas further invoked Article 13of the Convention
of 1973on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimesagainst Internation-
ally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, as a basis for the
exercise of the Court's jurisdiction with respect to its claims under that
Convention. The Court does not, however,find it necessary in the present
Judgment to enter into the question whether, in the particular circum-
stances of the case,Article 13of that Convention provides a basis for the
exercise of the Court's jurisdiction with respect to those claims.

56. The principal facts matenal for theCourt's decision on the merits of
thepresent casehave been setout earlier in thisJudgment. Thosefacts have

29dans la présente instance. Cependant, toutes les mesures dont il s'agitont
étéprises par les Etats-Unis après la capture de leur ambassade par un

groupe armé et la détention en otages de membres de leur personnel
diplomatique etconsulairequi enestrésultée. Ils'agissaitdemesuresprises
à la suite de ce que les Etats-Unis considéraient comme des violations
graves et manifestes dludroit international par l'Iran, y compris des vio-
lations du traitéde 1955lui-même.De toute manière,aucune violation du
traitécommise par l'une ou l'autre des parties ne saurait avoir pour effet
d'empêcher cettepartie d'invoquer les dispositions du traité relatives au
règlement pacifique des différends.
54. L'Iran n'apas soutenu que letraitéde 1955n'était pasen vigueur le
4 novembre 1979,quand l'ambassade des Etats-Unis a étéoccupéeet les
ressortissants de ce pa.yspris en otages, ni le 29 novembre, au moment où
les Etats-Unis ont sa:isila Cour du différend. Le but mêmed'un traité
d'amitié, eten particulier d'un traitéd'établissement, estavant tout de
promouvoir les relations entre deux Etats et entre leurs peuples par I'en-
gagement mutuel d'assurer sur le territoire de chacun la protection et la
sécuritédes ressortissiints de l'autre. C'est précisément moment où des
difficultésse présentent que le traité prend toute son importance ;l'objet
mêmede l'article XXIi,paragraphe 2, du traitéde 1955est de procurer le
moyen de parvenir au règlement amical de difficultés semblablespar la
Cour ou par d'autres voies pacifiques. Conclure qu'une action devant la
Cour en vertu de l'article XXI, paragraphe 2, ne serait pas ouverte aux

parties au moment pirécisoù cette voie de recours est le plus nécessaire
serait donc contraire ;aubut mêmedu traitéde 1955.De plus, bien que le
mécanisme permettarit de fairejouer effectivement ce traité soit sans nul
doute actuellement bloqué du fait de la rupture des relations diploma-
tiques entre les deux IEtatsdécidéepar les Etats-Unis, les dispositions du
traitécontinuent a faiirepartie du droit applicable entre les Etats-Unis et
l'Iran.

55. Les Etats-Unis ont invoquéen outre l'article 13de laconvention de
1973sur la préventionet la répressiondesinfractions contre lespersonnes
jouissant d'une protection internationale, y compris les agents diploma-
tiques, comme fondementde l'exercicede la compétence de la Cour pour
connaîtrede leurs demandesau titre de cetteconvention. La Cour n'estime
cependant pas nécessairede rechercher dans le présentarrêtsi, dans les
circonstances de l'espèce, l'article13de ladite convention peut servir de
fondement à I'exerciicede sa compétence pour connaître de ces de-
mandes.

56. Lesprincipaux faits pertinents aux fins de la décisionde la Cour sur
le fond de la préseniteaffaire ont étéexposésplus haut. La Cour doitto be looked at by the Court from two points of view. First, it must
determine how far, legally, the acts in question may be regarded as im-
putable tothe Iranian State. Secondly, it must consider their compatibility

or incompatibility with the obligations of Iran under treaties in force or
under any other rules of international law that may be applicable. The
events which are the subject of the United States' claims fa11into two
phases which it will be convenient to examine separately.

57. The first of these phases covers the armed attack on the United
States Embassy by militants on 4 November 1979,the overmnning of its

premises, the seizure of its inmates as hostages, the appropriation of its
property and archives and the conduct of the Iranian authorities in the face
of those occurrences. The attack and the subsequent overrunning, bit by
bit, of the whole Embassy premises, was an operation which continued
over a period of somethree hours without any body of police, any rnilitary
unit or any Iranian official intervening to try to stop or impede it from

being carried through to its completion. The result of the attack was
considerable damage to the Embassy premises and property, the forcible
opening and seizure of its archives, the confiscation of the archives and
other documents found in the Embassy and, most grave of all, the seizure
by force of its diplomaticand consular personnel as hostages, together with
two United States nationals.
58. No suggestion has been made that the militants, when they executed

their attack on the Embassy,had any form of officia1statusas recognized
"agents" or organs of the Iranian State. Their conduct in mounting the
attack, overrunning the Embassy and seizing its inmates as hostages can-
not, therefore, be regarded as imputable to that State on that basis. Their
conduct might be considered as itself directly imputable to the Iranian
State only if it were established that, in fact. on the occasion in question the
militants acted on behalf on the State, having been charged by some

competentorgan of the Iranian Stateto carry out a specific operation. The
information before the Court does not, however, suffice to establish with
the requisite certainty the existence at that time of such a link between the
militants and any competent organ of the State.
59. Previously, it is true, the religious leader of the country, the Aya-
tollah Khomeini, had made several public declarations inveighng against

the United States as responsiblefor al1his country's problems. In sodoing,
it would appear, the Ayatollah Khomeini was giving utterance to the
general resentment felt by supporters of the revolution at theadmission of
the former Shah to the United States. The information before the Court
alsoindicates that a spokesman forthe militants, in explaining their action
aftenvards, did expressly refer to a message issued by the Ayatollah
Khomeini, on 1November 1979.In that message the Ayatollah Khomeini

had declared that it was "up to the dear pupils, students and theological
students to expand with al1their might their attacks against the United
States and Israel, so they may force the United States toreturn the deposed
and criminal shah, and to condemn this great plot''(that is,aplot to stir upmaintenant les examiner de deux points de vue. Tout d'abord elle doit
déterminer dans quelilemesure les comportements en question peuvent
êtreconsidéréscommejuridiquement imputables à 1'Etatiranien. Ensuite
elle doit rechercher ii'ilssont compatibles ou non avec les obligations
incombant à l'Iran envertu des traitésenvigueurou de toute autre règlede
droit international éventuellement applicable. Les événementsdonnant
lieu aux réclamations des Etats-Unis s'échelonnenten deux phases qu'il
convient de considérer séparément.
57. La première de:ces deux phases recouvre l'attaque arméeperpétrée
le 4 novembre 1979par des militants contre l'ambassade des Etats-Unis,
l'invasion de sesocaux, la prise en otages des personnes qui s'ytrouvaient,
la saisie de ses biens et de ses archives et le comportement des autorités
iraniennes devant cesévénements.L'attaque puis l'occupation progressive
de tous lesbâtiments de l'ambassade se sont poursuivies pendant quelque

trois heures sans qu"un corps de police, une unité de l'armée ouune
personnalité iranienne intervienne pour essayer de les faire cesser. L'at-
taque s'est soldéepar des dégâtsconsidérablespour les biens de I'ambas-
sade, par l'ouverture forcéede sesarchives, la saisiede celles-ciet d'autres
documents trouvéssur place et, cequiest leplus grave,par lacapturepar la
force de membres de son personnel diplomatique et consulaire, lesquels
ont étépris en otages avec deux autres ressortissants des Etats-Unis.

58. Il n'apasétésoutenu qu'au moment où ilsattaquaient l'ambassade
lesmilitants aient eu lin statut officielquelconque en tant qu'((agenOou
organes de 1'Etat iranien. Leur comportement, lorsqu'ils ont organisé
l'attaque, envahi l'ambassade et pris ses occupants en otages, ne saurait
donc êtreconsidéréc(ommeimputable à1'Etatiranien sur cette base. Il ne
pourrait êtreconsidéré enlui-même commedirectement imputable à cet
Etat que s'ilétaitavéréque lesmilitants agissaient alors effectivement pour

son compte, parce qu'un organe compétent dudit Etat les aurait chargés
d'une opération déterminée.Les élémentsd'information dont la Cour
dispose ne permettent cependant pas d'établir,avec le degréde certitude
nécessaire, l'existenceà ce moment d'un tel lien entre les militants et un
organe compétent de 1'Etat.
59. Il est vrai que précédemmentl'ayatollah Khomeini, guide religieux
de la nation, avait fait plusieurs déclarations publiques dénonçant les
Etats-Unis comme rt:sponsables de tous les maux du pays. En agissant
ainsi, l'ayatollah s'étaitfait, semble-t-il, l'interprète du ressentiment géné-
ral qu'inspirait aux partisans de la révolution l'admissiondel'ancien Chah
aux Etats-Unis. Il ressort aussi des renseignements soumisàlaCour qu'un
porte-parole des militants,expliquant après coup leur action, s'estexpres-
sémentréféré à un messagedel'ayatollah Khomeinidu ler novembre 1979,
où celui-ci affirmait qu'il appartenait((aux enfants des écoles,aux étu-
diants et auxétudiantsen théologiebien-aimésde multiplier detoutes leurs

forcesleurs attaquescontre lesEtats-Unis et Israël pour que lesEtats-Unis
soient obligésde livrer le souverain criminel déposé etde condamner ce
grand complot (c'e.st-à-direun complot visantà provoquer des dissen-dissension between themain streams of Islamic thought). In theviewof the
Court, however, it would be going too far to interpret such general decla-
rations of the Ayatollah Khomeini to the people or students of Iran as
amounting to an authorization from the State to undertake the specific
operation of invading and seizing the United States Embassy. To do so
would, indeed,conflict with the assertions of the militants themselveswho
arereported to have claimed credit for having devised and carried out the
plan to occupy the Embassy. Again, congratulations after the event, such
as those reportedly telephoned to themilitants by theAyatollah Khomeini
on the actual evening of the attack, and other subsequent statements of
official approval, though hghly significant in another contextshortly tobe
considered, do not alter the initially independent and unofficial character
of the militants' attack on the Embassy.
60. The first phase, here under examination, of the events complained
of alsoincludes the attacks on the United StatesConsulates at Tabrizand
Shiraz. Like the attack on the Embassy, they appear to have been executed

by militants not having an officialcharacter, and successfulbecause oflack
of sufficient protection.
61. The conclusion just reached by the Court, that the initiation of the
attack on the United States Embassy on 4 November 1979,and of the
attacks on the Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz the following day, cannot
be considered asin itself imputableto the Iranian State does not mean that
Iran is, in consequence, free of any responsibility in regard to those
attacks ; for its own conduct was in conflict with its international obliga-
tions. By a number of provisions of the Vienna Conventions of 1961and
1963,Iran wasplaced under the most categorical obligations, asareceiving
State, to take appropriate steps to ensure the protection of the United
States Embassy and Consulates, their staffs,their archives, their means of
communication and the freedom of movement of the members of their
staffs.

62. Thus, after solemnlyproclaimingthe inviolability of the premises of
a diplornatic mission, Article 22 of the 1961 Convention continues in
paragraph 2 :
"ThereceivingState is underaspecial dutytotake al1appropriatesteps
toprotect thepremises of the mission against any intrusion or damage
and to prevent anydisturbance of the peace of the mission or impair-
ment of its dignity." (Emphasis added.)

So, too, after proclaiming that the person of a diplornatic agent shall be
inviolable, and that heshallnot beliable toany form of arrest or detention,
Article 29 provides :

"The receiving State shall treat hm with due respect and shall take
al1 appropriate steps to prevent any attack on his person, freedom or
dignity."(Emphasis added.)
The obligation of a receiving State to protect the inviolability of the PERSONNECLDIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 30

sions entre les princi~lales tendances islamiques). Selon la Cour. ce serait
cependant aller trop loin que d'interpréter de telles déclarations générales
adresséespar l'ayatollah Khomeini à la population ou aux étudiants ira-

niens comme équivalant àuneautorisationd'entreprendre pour lecompte
de I'Etat l'opération précisequi consistait à envahir et à occuper I'ambas-
sade. Cela irait mêmeà l'encontre des assertions attribuées aux militants,
qui se seraient vanté:;d'avoir conçu et exécutéle plan d'occupation de
l'ambassade. De mêm,ed ,es félicitations venues après coup, comme celles

que l'ayatollah Khomeini semble avoir faites par téléphonelesoir mêmede
l'attaque, et d'autres déclarations ultérieures d'approbation officielle, si
elles revêtent une grande importance dans un autre contexte qui sera
examiné ci-après, ne modifient pas le caractère initialement indépendant
et non officiel de I'attaque de l'ambassade par les militants.
60. La première phase, examinée ici, des événements incriminéscom-

prend aussi les attaqu,es des consulats des Etats-Unis àTabriz et àChiraz.
Comme celle de I'ambassade, ces attaques semblent avoir été exécutéespar
des militants dépourvus de caractère officiel, et avoir réussiparce que les
bâtiments n'étaient pas suffisamment protégés.
61. Il reste que la c,onclusion à laquelle la Cour est parvenue - à savoir

que le déclenchement de I'attaque contre l'ambassade des Etats-Unis le
4 novembre 1979et des attaquescontre lesconsulats de Tabriz et de Chiraz
le lendemain ne peut êtreconsidérécommeétanten lui-mêmeimputable à
1'Etatiranieri - ne signifie pas que l'Iran soit, en conséquence,exonéré de
toute responsabilité à propos de ces attaques. Son propre comportement
était en effet incompatible avec ses obligations internationales, car, en

vertu de diverses dispositions des conventions de Vienne de 1961 et de
1963.l'Iran avait, en tant qu'Etat accréditaire, l'obligation la plus formelle
de prendre des mesures appropriées pour protéger l'ambassade et les
consulats des Etats-llnis, leur personnel. leurs archives, leurs moyens
de communication eit la liberté de mouvement des membres de leur

personnel.
62. C'est ainsi que, après avoir solennellement proclamé l'inviolabilité
des locaux d'une mission diplomatique, l'article 22 de la convention de
1961 dispose en son paragraphe 2 :

((L'Etat accréditairea l'obligation spéciale deprendre toutesmesures
uppropriéesafind'empêcher queleslocauxdelamissionnesoientenvahis
ou endommagés, la paix de la mission troublée ou sa dignitéamoin-
drie. (Les italiques sont de la Cour.)

De même,après avoir stipulé que la personne de l'agent diplomatique est
inviolable et qu'il ne peut être soumisà aucune forme d'arrestation ou de

détention, l'article 29 prévoit :
L'Etat accréclitaire le traite avec le respect qui lui est dû, etprend

toutesmesuresappropriéespour empêche truteatteintc ùsapersonne, sa
liberté et sadignité. (Les italiques sont de la Cour.)
L'obligation de I'Etat accréditairede protégerl'inviolabilitédes archives et31 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

archives and documents of a diplomatic mission is laid down in Article 24,
which specifically provides that they are to be "inviolable at any time and
wherever they may ben. Under Article 25 it is required to "accord full

facilities for the performance of the functions of the mission", under
Article 26 to "ensure to al1members of the mission freedom of movement
and travel in its territory", and under Article 27to "permit and protect free
communication on the part of the mission for al1 official purposes".
Analogous provisions are to be found in the 1963 Convention regarding
the privileges and immunities of consular missions and their staffs (Art. 31,

para. 3,Arts. 40,33,28,34 and 35).In the viewof the Court, the obligations
of the Iranian Government here in question are not merely contractual
obligations established by the Vienna Conventions of 1961and 1963,but
also obligations under general international law.

63. The facts set out in paragraphs 14 to 27 above establish to the

satisfaction of the Court that on 4 November 1979 the Iranian Govern-
ment failed altogether to take any "appropriate steps" to protect the
premises, staff and archives of the United States' mission againstattack by
the militants, and to takeany stepseither to prevent this attack or tostop it
before it reached itscompletion. They also show that on 5 November 1979

the Iranian Government similarly failed to take appropriate steps for the
protection of the United States Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz. In addi-
tion they show, in the opinion of the Court, that the failure of theanian
Government to take such steps was due to more than mere negligence or
lack of appropriate means.
64. The total inaction of the Iranian authorities on that date in face of

urgent and repeated requests for help contrasts very sharply with its
conduct on several other occasions of a similar kind. Some eight months
earlier, on 14 February 1979, the United States Embassy in Tehran had
itself been subjected to the armed attack mentioned above (paragraph 14),
in the course of which theattackershad taken theAmbassador and his staff

prisoner. On that occasion, however, a detachment of Revolutionary
Guards, sent by the Government, had arrived promptly, together with a
Deputy Prime Minister, and had quickly succeeded in freeing the Ambas-
sador and his staff and restoring the Embassy to him. On 1March 1979,
moreover, the Prime Minister of Iran had sent a letter expressing deep
regret at the incident, giving an assurance that appropriate arrangements

had been made to prevent any repetition of such incidents, and indicating
the willingness of his Government to indemnify the United States for the
damage. On 1November 1979, only three days before the events which
gave rise to the present case, the Iranian police intervened quickly and
effectively to protect the United States Embassy when a large crowd of
demonstrators spent several hours marching up and down outside it.

Furthermore, on other occasions in November 1979 and January 1980,
invasions or attempted invasions of other foreign embassies in Tehran
were frustrated or speedily terminated.
65. A similar pattern of facts appears in relation to consulates. In PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 31

documents d'une misisiondiplomatique est énoncéeàI'article 24, où ilest
spécifiéqu'ils sont <(inviolables à tout moment et en quelque lieu qu'ils se

trouvent ))Aux termes de I'article 25, 1'Etataccréditaire <accorde toutes
facilitéspour l'accomplissement des fonctions de la mission ; en vertu de
I'article 26, il<assure à tous les membres de la mission la liberté de
déplacement et de cil-culation sur son territoire ))et, selon I'article 27, il
permet et protège la.libre communication de la mission pour toutes fins

officiellesD. Des dispositions analogues figurent dans la convention de
1963au sujet des privilègeset immunitésdesmissionsconsulaireset de leur
personnel (art. 31, par. 3, et art. 40, 33, 28,34 et 35). Selon la Cour, les
obligations du Gouvernement de l'Iran dont il s'agit ne sont pas simple-
ment desobligations contractuelles établies par les conventions de Vienne

de 1961 et de 1963 ; ce sont aussi des obligations imposées par le droit
international général.
63. Les faits exposésauxparagraphes 14à27 ci-dessus établissentpour
la Cour que, le 4 nove:mbre 1979,le Gouvernement de l'Iran a totalement
manqué de prendre des <<mesures appropriées afin de protéger les

locaux, le personnel et les archives de la mission des Etats-Unis contre
l'attaque des militants et n'a rien fait pour prévenir cette attaque ou
l'empêcherd'aboutir. Ils montrent aussi que, le 5 novembre 1979,le Gou-
vernement de l'Iran a de même manquéde prendre des mesures appro-
priéespour protéger les consulats des Etats-Unis à Tabriz et à Chiraz. Ils

montrent enfin, de I'a~vis de la Cour, que la carence du Gouvernement de
l'Iran était due à plus qu'une simple négligenceou un simple manque de
moyens.
64. L'inaction totale des autorités iraniennes à cette date, en dépit
d'appels a l'aide urgents et répétés,contraste de manière frappante avec

leur comportement dans plusieurs situations similaires. Quelque huit mois
auparavant, le 14février1979,l'ambassade desEtats-Unis àTéhéranavait
étél'objet de l'attaque arméedéjàmentionnée(paragraphe 14),au cours de
laquelle les ;issaillants avaient fait prisonniers I'ambassadeur et son per-
sonnel. A cette occasion, toutefois, un détachement de gardiens de la

révolution dépêché par le gouvernement était arrivé rapidement sur les
lieux en compagnie cl'un vice-premier ministre et avait très vite réussi à
libérer I'ambassadeur et son personnel et à dégager l'ambassade. De plus,
dans une lettre du lei mars 1979,le premier ministre d'Iran avait exprimé
ses profonds regrets pour l'incident, assuré que des dispositions appro-

priées avaient étéprises pour en empêcherle retour et déclaréque son
gouvernement était disposé à indemniser les Etats-Unis pour les domma-
ges causés.Ide ler novembre 1979, trois jours seulement avant les événe-
ments qui sont à l'origine de la présente affaire, la police iranienne était
intervenue de manière prompte et efficace pour protéger I'ambassade des
Etats-Unis alors qu'une foule nombreuse de manifestants passait et repas-

sait devant elle pendant plusieurs heures. Enfin, en novembre 1979 et
janvier 1980, des invasions ou tentatives d'invasion d'autres ambassades
étrangèresont étérelpousséesou rapidement mises en échec.
65.-pour les consulats, le déroulement des faits répond au mêmesché-February 1979,at about the same time as the first attack on the United
States Embassy, attacks were made by demonstrators on its Consulates in
Tabriz and Shiraz ; but the Iranian authorities then took the necessary
steps to clear them of the demonstrators. On the other hand, the Iranian
authorities took no actionto prevent the attack of 5 November 1979,orto
restore the Consulates to the possession of the United States. In contrast,
when on the next day militants invaded the Iraqi Consulate in Kerman-
shah, prompt steps were taken by the Iranian authorities to secure their
withdrawal from the Consulate. Thus in this case, the Iranian authorities
and police took the necessary steps to prevent and check the attempted
invasion or return the premises to their rightful owners.

66. As to the actualconduct of the Iranian authorities when faced with
the events of 4 November 1979.the information before the Court estab-
lishes that, despite assurances previously given by them to the United
States Government and despite repeated and urgent calls for help, they
took no apparent steps either to prevent the militants from invading the
Embassy or to persuade or to compel them to withdraw. Furthermore,
after the militants had forced an entry into the prernises of the Embassy,
the Iranian authorities made no effort to compel or even to persuade them
to withdraw from the Embassy and to free the diplomatic and consular
staff whom they had made prisoner.

67. Thisinaction of the Iranian Government by itself constituted clear
and serious violation of Iran's obligations to the United States under the
provisions of Article 22,paragraph 2, and Articles 24,25,26, 27and 29of
the 1961Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, and Articles 5and
36 of the 1963Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. Similarly, with
respect to the attacks on the Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz, the inaction
of the Iranian authorities entailed clear and serious breaches of its obli-
gations under the provisions of several further articles of the 1963Con-
vention on Consular Relations. So far as concerns the two private United
States nationals seized as hostages by the invadingmilitants, that inaction

entailed, albeit incidentally, a breach of its obligations under Article II,
paragraph 4, of the 1955Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Con-
sular Rights which, in addition to the obligations of Iran existing under
general international law,requires theparties to ensure "the most constant
protection and security" to each other's nationals in their respective ter-
ritones.

68. The Court is therefore led inevitably to conclude, in regard to the
first phase of the events which has so far been considered, that on 4 No-
vember 1979 the Iranian authorities :

(a) were fully aware of their obligations under the conventionsin force to
take appropriate steps to protect the prernises of the United States
Embassy and its diplomatic and consular staff from any attack
and from any infringement of their inviolability, and to ensure the DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)
33

security of such other persons as might be present on the said
premises ;
(b) were fully aware, as a result of theappeals forhelp made by the United
States Embassy, of the urgent need for action on their part ;

(c) had the means at their disposa1 to perform their obligations ;
(d) completely failed to comply with these obligations.

Similarly, the Court is led to conclude that the Iranian authorities were
equally aware of their obligations to protect the United States Consulates
atTabriz and Shiraz, and of the need for action on their part,and similarly
failed to use the means which were at their disposa1to comply with their
obligations.

69. The second phase of the events which are the subject of the United
States' claimscomprisesthe whole seriesof facts which occurred following
the completion of the occupation of the United States Embassy by the
militants, and the seizure of the Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz. The
occupation having taken place and the diplomatic and consular personnel
of the United States' mission having been taken hostage, the action
required of the Iranian Government by the Vienna Conventions and by
general international lawwas manifest. Itsplain duty was at once to make
every effort, and to take every appropriate step, to bring these flagrant

infringements of the inviolability of the premises, archives and diplomatic
and consular staff of the United States Embassy to a speedyend, to restore
the Consulates at Tabriz and Shiraz to United States control, and in
general to re-establish the status quo and to offer reparation for the
damage.

70. No such step was, however, taken by the Iranian authorities. At a
press conference on 5 November the Foreign Minister, Mr. Yazdi, con-
ceded that "according to international regulations the Iranian Govern-
ment isdutybound to safeguard the lifeand property of foreignnationals".
But he madeno mention of Iran's obligation to safeguard the inviolability
of foreign embassies and diplomats ;and heended by announcing that the
action of the students "enjoys the endorsement and support of the gov-

ernment, because America herself is responsible for this incident". As to
the Prime Minister, Mr. Bazargan, he does not appear to have made any
statement on the matter before resigning his office on 5 November.

71. In any event expressions of approval of the take-over of the Em-
bassv,,and indeed also of the Consulates at Tabrizand Shiraz. bv militants
came immediately from numerous Iranian authorities, includini religious,
judicial, executive, police and broadcasting authorities. Above all, the
Ayatollah Khomeini himself made crystal clear the endorsement by the
State both of the take-over of the Embassy and Consulates and of the PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 33

inviolabilité,ainsi que pour assurer lasécuritédes autrespersonnesqui
pouvaient s'y trouver ;

b) étaient pleinement conscientes, du fait des appels à l'aide de l'ambas-
sade des Etats-Unis, que des mesures urgentes de leur part s'impo-
saient ;
c) disposaient des moyens de s'acquitter de leurs obligations ;
d) ont totalement manqué de se conformer auxdites obligations.

De même.la Cour e.st amenée a conclure que les autorités iraniennes
étaient égalementcoriscientes de leur obligation de protégerles consulats
des Etats-Unis à Tabriz et à Chiraz et de la nécessitéde prendre. des

mesures à leursujet.et que là encore elles ont manqué à utiliser les moyens
dont elles disp0saien.t pour s'acquitter de leurs obligations.

69. La seconde phase des événementsqui motivent les réclamations des
Etats-Unis comprencl toute la sériedes faits qui se sont déroulés après
l'occupation de l'ambassade desEtats-Unis par les militants et la prise des
consulats de Tabriz et de Chiraz. Cette occupation s'étantproduite et les

membres du personnel diplomatique et consulaire de la mission des Etats-
Unis ayant été prisen otages, les mesures exigéesdu Gouvernement de
l'Iran par lesconventions de Vienne et par ledroit international généralne
pouvaient faire aucun, doute. Le devoir évident de ce gouvernement était.
sans plus tarder. de ne négliger aucun effort et de prendre toutes les

dispositions appropriées pour mettre fin rapidement à ces atteintes fla-
grantes à 1'inviolabilil.des locaux. des archiveset du personnel diploma-
tiqueetconsulaire de l'ambassade des Etats-Unis. de remettre lesconsulats
de Tabriz et de Chira.z en possession des Etats-Unis et. d'une façon génti-
rale. de rétablir la situation antérieure aux attaques et de proposer la
réparation du préjudi.cesubi.

70. Or les autorité:;iraniennes n'ont rien fait de semblable. Lors d'une
conférence de presse i:enuele 5 novembre. M. Yazdi. ministre des affaires
étrangères, a admis que. <conformément aux règles internationales. le
Gouvernement iranien avait l'obligation de sauvegarder la vie et les
biens des ressortissants étrangers D. Mais il n'a rien dit de l'obligation de

sauvegarder l'inviolabilitédesambassades et des diplomates étrangers qui
incombait à l'Iran ; et il a déclarépour finir que l'action des étudiants
bénéficiaitde l'appui et de l'approbation du gouvernement. l'Amérique
elle-mêmeétantresponsable de cet incident o.Quant au premier ministre.
M. Bazargan, il ne sernble pas avoir fait de déclaration à ce sujet avant de
résigner ses fonctions.le 5 novembre.

71. Quoi qu'il en soit. de nombreuses autorités iraniennes. notamment
religieuses,judiciaires.. exécutives, ainsi que des représentants de la police
et de la radiodiffusiori. ont immédiatement manifesté leur approbation de
la prise de l'ambassade et des consulats de Tabriz et de Chiraz opéréepar
les militants. Et surtout l'ayatollah Khomeini a proclamé que 1'Etatappor-

tait sa caution tant i la prise de I'ambassade et des consulats qu'à la34 DlPLOMATlC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

detention of the Embassy staff as hostages. At a reception in Qom on
5 November. the Ayatollah Khomeini left his audience in no doubt as to
his approval of the action of the militants in occupying the Embassy. to
which he said they had resorted "because they saw that the shah was

allowed in America". Saying that he had been informed that the "centre
occupied byour young men. . . has been a lair of espionage and plotting",
he asked how the young people could be expected "simply to remain idle
and witness al1 these things". Furthermore he expressly stigmatized as
"rotten roots" those in Iran who were "hoping we would mediate and tell
theyoung people to leave this place". The Ayatollah's refusal to order "the

young people" to put an end to their occupation of the Embassy, or the
militants in Tabnz and Shiraz to evacuate the United States Consulates
there, must have appeared the more significant when. on 6 November. he
instructed "the young people" who had occupied the Iraqi Consulate in
Kermanshah that they should leave it as soon as possible. The true sig-
nificance of this was only reinforced when, next day,he expressly forbade

members of the Revolutionary Council and al1responsible officials to meet
the special representatives sent by President Carter to try and obtain the
release of the hostages and evacuation of the Embassy.

72. At any rate, thus fortified in their action, the militants at the

Embassy at once went one step farther. On 6 November they proclaimed
that the Embassy, which they too referred to as "the U.S. centre of plots
and espionage", would remain under their occupation. and that they were
watching "most closely" the members of thediplomatic staff taken hostage
whom they called "U.S. mercenaries and spies".

73. The seal of official government approval was finally set on this
situation by a decree issued on 17November 1979by the Ayatollah Kho-
meini. His decreebegan with the assertion that theAmerican Embassywas
"a centre of espionage and conspiracy" and that "those people who
hatched plots against our Islamic movement in that place do not enjoy
internationaldiplomatic respect". He went on expressly to declare that the

premises of the Embassy and the hostages would remain as they were until
the United Stateshad handed over theformer Shah for trial and returned
his property to Iran.Thisstatement of policy the Ayatollah qualified only
to the extent of requesting the militants holding the hostages to "hand over
the blacks and the women, if it is proven that they did not spy, to the
Ministry of ForeignAffairs sothat theymaybe immediately expelled from

Iran". As to the rest of the hostages, he made the Iranian Government's
intentions al1too clear :

"The noble Iranian nation willnot givepermission for the release of
the rest of them. Therefore, the rest of them will be under arrest until
the American Government acts according to the wish of the
nation."détention en otages de membres du personnel de l'ambassade. Donnant
audience le 5 novemlbre à Qom, l'ayatollah Khomeini a clairement fait
entendre aux personnes présentesqu'il approuvait l'occupation de I'am-
bassade par les militants, action à laquelle, a-t-il dit<nosjeunes gens ont

eu recours parce qu'ilsont appris que le Chah était autorisé à se rendre en
Amérique o.Affirmant êtreinstruit de ce que le <<centre occupépar nos
jeunes ))était <(un repaire d'espions et de comploteurs O,il a demandé
comment l'on aurait .voulu que cesjeunes gens assistent à tout cela sans
rien faire )).Il a en outre formellement traitéde <(racines pourries ))ceux
qui espéraient en Irari <que nous apporterions notre médiationet dirions

auxjeunes de quitter ces lieux )).Le refus de l'ayatollah d'ordonner aux
((jeunes gens ))de mettre fin à leur occupation de l'ambassade et aux
militants de Tabriz et de Chiraz d'évacuer lesconsulats des Etats-Unis
dans ces villes a dû paraître encore plus significatif le 6 novembre, quand
l'ayatollah a enjoint wx occupants du consulat d'Irak à Kermanchah de
quitter les lieux au plus tôt. La signification réellede tout cela est apparue

encore plus nettement lorsque, le lendemain, l'ayatollah a formellement
interdit aux membres du conseil de la révolution et à toutes les person-
nalités responsables de rencontrer les représentants spéciaux envoyéspar
le président Carter pour essayer d'obtenir la libération des otages et
l'évacuationde l'ambassade.
72. En tout cas, ainsi encouragés dans leur action, les militants de
l'ambassade ont immédiatement franchi un pas deplus. Ils ont proclaméle

6novembreque l'ambassade, dénoncéeégalementpar euxcomme <centre
de complots et d'espionnage des Etats-Unis O, resterait sous leur occupa-
tion et qu'ilsy garderaient <<sous étroitesurveillance ))les membres du
personnel dip1omatiq:uepris en otages,qu'ils traitaient de << mercenaires et
espions des Etats-Unis )>.
73. Le sceau de 1'a.pprobationofficielle du gouvernement a finalement
été donnépar une décisiondu 17novembre 1979où l'ayatollah Khomeini

commen~ait.par -ffirmer que l'ambassade américaine était <(un centre
d'espionnage et de c,onspiration et que (<les gens qui ont fomenté des
complots contre notricmouvement islamique en cet endroit n'ont pas droit
au respect diplomatique international o.Il poursuivait en proclamant que
lasituation des 1ocau:cdel'ambassadeet desotages resterait inchangéetant
que lesEtats-Unis n'auraient pas livrél'ancienChah pour qu'ilsoit traduit

enjustice et n'auraient pas restituésesbiens à l'Iran. La seule atténuation
apportée par l'ayatollah à cette déclaration de politique consistait à
demander aux militants qui détenaient les otages de <remettre au rninis-
tère des affaires étrangèresles Noirs et les femmes, s'il est prouvé qu'ils
n'ont pas eu d'activité d'espionnage, afin qu'ils soientimmédiatement
expulsésd'Iran )).Q.uant au sort des autres otages, il ne laissait planer

aucun doute sur les intentions du Gouvernement de l'Iran :
<<La noble nation iranienne ne permettra pas la libération du reste
des otages. Ceux-ci par conséquent resteront en état d'arrestation

jusqu'à ce que l,eGouvernement américain se plie aux désirsde la
nation. ))35 DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR STAFF (JUDGMENT)

74. The policy thus announced by the Ayatollah Khomeini, of main-
taining the occupation of the Embassy and the detention of its inmates as
hostages for the purpose of exerting pressure on the United States Gov-
ernment was complied with by other Iranian authorities and endorsed by

them repeatedly in statements made in vanous contexts. The result of that
policy was fundamentally to transform the legal nature of the situation
created by the occupation of the Embassy and the detention of its diplo-
matic and consular staff as hostages. The approval given to these facts by
the Ayatollah Khomeini and other organs of the Iranian State, and the
decision to perpetuate them, translated continuing occupation of the

Embassy and detention of the hostages into acts of that State. The mili-
tants, authors of the invasion and jailers of the hostages, had now become
agents of the Iranian State for whose acts the State itself was internation-
ally responsible. On 6 May 1980, the Minister for Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Ghotbzadeh, is reported to have said in a televisioninterview that the

occupation of the United States Embassy had been "done by Ournation".
Moreover, in the prevailing circumstances the situation of the hostages was
aggravated by the fact that their detention by the militants did not even
offer the normal guarantees which might have been afforded by police
and security forces subject to the discipline and the control of official
superiors.

75. During the six months which have elapsed since the situation just
described was created by the decree of the Ayatollah Khomeini, it has
undergone no material change. The Court's Order of 15December 1979
indicating provisional measures, which called for the immediate restora-
tion of the Embassy to the United States and the release of the hostages,
was publicly rejected by the Minister for Foreign Affairs on the following
day and has been ignored by al1 Iranian authorities. On two occasions,

namely on 23 February and on 7 April 1980,the Ayatollah Khomeini laid
it down that the hostages should remain at the United States Embassy
under the control of the militants until the new Iranian parliament should
have assembled and taken a decision as to their fate. His adherenc10 that
policy also made it impossible to obtain his consent to the transfer of the

hostages from the control of the militants to that of the Government or of
the Council of the Revolution. In any event, while highly desirable from
the humanitarian and safety points of view,such a transfer would not have
resulted in any material change in the legal situation, for its sponsors
themselves emphasized that it must not be understood as signifying the
release of the hostages.

76. The Iranian authorities' decision to continue the subjection of the
premises of the United States Embassy to occupation by militants and of
the Embassy staff to detention as hostages, clearly gave rise to repeated

and multiplebreaches of the applicable provisions of the Vienna Conven- 74. La politique ainsi annoncée par l'ayatollah Khomeini, consistant à

maintenir l'occupation de I'ambassade et la détention des otages afin de
faire pression sur le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, a été appliquée par
d'autres autoritésiraruennes et appuyéepar ellesdefaçon réitéréd eans des
déclarations faitesà diverses occasions. Cette politique a eu pour effet de
transformer radicalement la nature juridique de la situation crééepar
l'occupation de I'ambassade et la détention de membres de son personnel
diplomatique et consulaire en otages. L'ayatollah Khomeini et d'autres
organes de 1'Etatiranien ayant approuvéces faits et décidéde les perpé-
tuer, l'occupation continuede I'ambassade et la détention persistante des
otages ont pris le caractère d'actesdudit Etat. Les militants, auteurs de
l'invasion et geôliers des otages, sont alors devenus des agents de1'Etat
iranien dont les actes engagent sa responsabilité internationale. M. Ghot-
bzadeh, ministre des affaires étrangères, aurait d'ailleurs déclarédans un
entretien télévisdu 61mai 1980que l'occupation deI'ambassadedes Etats-
Unis était c<le fait cle notre nationo.Au surplus, dans l'ambiance qui
régnait alors, la situation des otages a étéaggravéepar le fait que leur

détentionpar lesmilitants n'offre pas mêmeles garanties quel'onpourrait
normalement attendre de forces disciplinéesde police ou de sécuritéaux
ordres de leurs supérieurs réguliers.

75. Au cours des six mois écoulésdepuis que la décisionde l'ayatollah
Khomeini a crééla :situation ainsi décrite,celle-ci n'a pas sensiblement
évolué.L'ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires du 15dé-
cembre 1979,qui demandait la restitution immédiate de l'ambassade des
Etats-Unis et la libéirationdes otages, a étérejetéepubliquement le len-
demain par le ministre des affaires étrangères etignoréepar toutes les
autorités iraniennes. Par deux fois, les févrieret7 avril 1980,l'ayatollah
Khomeini a proclamé que les otages resteraient à I'ambassade des Etats-
Unis sousla garde des militants tant que le nouveau parlement iranien ne
seserait pas réunietn'aurait pas réglleur sort. Cette politique excluait que
l'ayatollah puisseconsentir àce que lesotagessoient enlevésauxmilitants

et remis au gouvernement ou au conseil de la révolution. Detoute manière,
si désirableeût-il étésous l'anglehumanitaire ou sous celui de la sécurité,
un tel transfert'aur,aitpas sensiblement changéla situationjuridique, ses
promoteurs eux-mêniesayant souligné qu'il ne fallaitpas en conclure que
les otages seraientd,ece fait libérés.

76. La décisiondes autorités iraniennes de continuer à soumettre les
locaux de I'ambassade desEtats-Unis à uneoccupation par desmilitantset
à détenir son personnel en otage a manifestement entraîné des manque-
mentsrépétéset multiplesauxdispositionsapplicablesdesconventions detions even more serious than those which arose from their failure to take
any steps to prevent the attacks on the inviolability ofthese premises and
staff.

77. In the first place, thesefacts constituted breaches additional tothose
already committed of paragraph 2 of Article 22 of the 1961Vienna Con-
vention on Diplomatic Relations which requires Iran to protect the pre-
mises of the mission against any intrusion or damage and to prevent any
disturbance of itspeace orimpairment of itsdignity. Paragraphs 1 and 3of
that Article have also been infringed, and continue to be infringed, since
they forbid agents of a receiving State to enter the prernises of a mission
without consent or toundertake anysearch,requisition, attachment or like
measure on the premises. Secondly,they constitutecontinuing breaches of
Article 29of the same Convention whichforbids any arrestordetention of
a diplomatic agent and any attack on his person, freedom or dignity.
Thirdly, the Iranian authorities are without doubt in continuing breach of
the provisions ofArticles 25,26 and 27of the 1961Vienna Convention and
of pertinent provisions of the 1963Vienna Convention concerning facili-
ties for the performance of functions, freedom of movement and commu-
nications for diplomatic and consular staff, as well as of Article 24 of the
former Convention and Article 33 of the latter, which provide for the
absolute inviolability of the archives and documents of diplomatic mis-
sions and consulates. This particular violation has been made manifest to
the world by repeated statements by the militants occupying the Embassy,
who claim to be in possession of documents from the archives, and by

various governmentauthorities,purporting to specifythe contents thereof.
Finally, the continued detention as hostages of the two private individuals
of United Statesnationality entails a renewed breach of theobligations of
Iran under Article II,paragraph 4,of the 1955Treaty ofAmity, Economic
Relations, and Consular Rights.

78. Inevitably, in considering the compatibility or otherwise of the
conduct of the Iranian authorities with the requirements of the Vienna
Conventions, the Court has focussed its attention primanly on the occu-
pation of the Embassy and the treatment of the United Statesdiplomatic
and consular personnel within the Embassy. It is howeverevident that the
question of the compatibility of their conduct with the Vienna Conven-
tions also arises in connection with the treatment of the United States
Chargéd'affaires and two members of his staff in the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs on 4 November 1979 and since that date. The facts of this case
establish to the satisfaction of the Court that on 4 November 1979and
thereafter the Iranian authorities havewithheld from the Chargéd'affaires
and the two members of his staff the necessary protection and facilities to
permit them to leave the Ministry in safety. Accordingly it appears to the
Court that with respect to these three members of the United States'
mission the Iranian authorities have comrnitted a continuing breach of
their obligations under Articles 26 and 29of the 1961Vienna Convention

on Diplomatic Relations. It further appears to the Court that the con-Vienne, manquemen1.sencore plus graves que le fait, pour ces mêmes
autorités,de n'avoir pris aucune mesure en vue de prévenir lesatteintesà
l'inviolabilité des locaux etdu personnel de l'ambassade.
77. En premier lieu, ces faits ont ajouàécellesdéjàcommises d'autres
violations de l'article,paragraphe 2,de la convention de Vienne de 1961
sur les relations diplomatiques, qui prescrità l'Iran d'empêcherque les
locaux de la mission nesoientenvahis ou endommagés,sapaix troubléeou
sadignitéamoindrie. ]Lesparagraphes 1et 3du mêmearticle ont également
étéet continuent d'être enfreints,uisqu'ilsinterdisent auxagents deI'Etat
accréditairede pénétrer sansautorisation dans leslocaux de la mission ou
d'y opérer toute perquisition, réquisition, saisie ou mesure semblable. En
second lieu, lesmêmesfaits constituent des violations continues de I'ar-
ticle 29de la mêmeconvention, qui interdit toute arrestation ou détention
d'un agent diplomatique et toute atteinte à sa personne, sa libertéet sa
dignité.En troisième lieu,il n'estpas douteux que les autoritésiraniennes
enfreignent en permanence les dispositions des articles 25, 26et 27 de la

convention de Viennlede 1961et les dispositions pertinentes de la con-
vention de Vienne de 1963relatives aux facilitéspour l'accomplissement
des fonctions et à la. liberté de déplacement et de communication du
personnel diplomatique et consulaire, ainsi que les dispositions de l'arti-
cle 24 de la première et de l'articlede la seconde qui prévoientI'invio-
labilité absolue des archives et documents des missions diplomatiques et
des consulats. Cette infraction particulière est connuedumonde entier par
lesdéclarationsré~étiied sesmilitants aui ocCuDentl'ambassade. affirmant
que des document's tirésdes archives&nt entréleurs mains, et par cellesde
diverses autoritésgouvernementales, prétendantenrévélelra teneur. Enfin
la détention continue'en otages des deux simples ressortissants des Etats-
Unis implique une violation persistante desobligations incombant àl'Iran
en vertu de l'article II,paragraphe 4, du traité d'ami, e commerce et de
droits consulaires de 1955.
78. En recherchant silecomportement des autoritésiraniennes étaitou
non compatible aveclesprescriptions desconventions deVienne,laCour a
été amenée inévitablermentà porter avant tout son attention sur I'occupa-
tion de l'ambassade et le traitement du personnel diplomatique et consu-
lairedes Etats-Unis qui y étaitdétenu.Il est toutefois évidentque le même

problèmede compatibilitédu comportement des autoritésiraniennes avec
les conventions de Vienne se pose à propos du traitement du chargé
d'affaires des Etats-Lnis et de deux membres de son personnel setrouvant
au ministère des affaires étrangères depuisle 4 novembre 1979. Les faits
de la cause établissent d'après la Cour que, depuis cette date, les auto-
rités iraniennes ont refusé au chargé d'affaires et aux deux membres
de son personnel la protection et les moyens nécessaires pour qu'ils
puissent quitter le rninistère en toute sécurité. LaCour estime donc
que, pour ces trois membres de la mission des Etats-Unis, les autorités
iraniennes ont comniis une violation continue des obligations que leur
imposent les articles 26 et 29 de la convention de Vienne de 1961 sur
les relations diplomatiques. Elle estime en outre que, dans de tellestinuation of that situation over a long period has, in the circumstances,
amounted to detention in the Ministry.

79. The Court moreover cannot conclude its observations on the series
of acts which it has found to be imputable to the Iranian State and to be
patently inconsistent with its international obligations under the Vienna
Conventions of 1961and 1963withoutmention alsoofanotherfact. Thisis
that judicial authorities of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Minister
for ForeignAffairs have frequently voicedor associated themselveswith, a
threat first announced by the militants, of having some of the hostages
submitted to trial before a court or some other body. These threats may at
present merely be acts in contemplation. But the Court considers it
necessary here and now to stress that, if the intention to submit the
hostages to any form of criminal trial or investigation were to be put into
effect, that would constitute agravebreach by Iran of itsobligations under
Article 31,paragraph 1,of the 1961Vienna Convention. This paragraph
states in the most expressterms :"A diplomatic agent shall enjoy irnrnun-
ity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State." Again, if there
were an attempt to compel the hostages to bear witness, a suggestion
renewed at the time of the visit to Iran of the Secretary-General's Com-
mission, Iran would without question be violating paragraph 2 of that
same Article of the 1961 Vienna Convention which provides that :"A

diplomatic agent is not obliged to give evidence as a witness."

80. The facts of the present case, viewed in the light of the applicable
rules oflaw, thus speak loudly and clearlyofsuccessiveand stillcontinuing
breaches by Iran of its obligations to the United States under the Vienna
Conventions of 1961and 1963,as wellas under the Treaty of 1955.Before
drawing from this finding the conclusions which flow from it, in terms of
the international responsibility of the Iranian State vis-à-vis the United
States of America, the Court considers that it should examine onefurther
point. The Courtcannot overlook the fact that on the Iranian side,inoften
imprecise terms, the idea has been put fonvard that the conduct of the
Iranian Government, at the time of the events of 4 November 1979and
subsequently, might be justified by the existence of special circum-
stances.
81. In his letters of 9 December 1979and 16March 1980,as previously
recalled, Iran's Minister for Foreign Affairs referred to the present case as
only "a marginal and secondary aspect of an overall problem". This
problem, he maintained, "involves, inter alia, more than 25 years of con-
tinual interference by the United States in the interna1affairs of Iran, the

shameless exploitation of our country, and numerous crimes perpetrated
against the Iranian people, contraryto and inconflict with al1international
and humanitarian norms". In the first of the two letters he indeed singled
out amongst the "crimes" which he attributed to the United States an
alleged complicity on the part of the Central Intelligence Agency in the
coup d'étatof 1953and in the restoration of the Shah to the throne of Iran.circonstances, la peirsistance de cette situation équivaut à une déten-
tion au ministère.
79. La Cour ne saurait enfin conclure ses observations sur la série
d'actes qu'elle juge imputables àI'Etat iranien et manifestement incom-
patibles avec sesobligationsinternationales aux termes desconventionsde
Vienne de 1961et de 1963sans évoquerun autre fait encore :desautorités
judiciaires de la République islamique d'Iran et le ministre des affaires

étrangèresont souvent proféré lamenace, ou se sont associés à celle qui
avait étéproférée enpremier lieu par les militants, de fairejuger certains
des otages par un tribunal ou une autre instance. Ces menaces sont peut-
êtreactuellement de simpleséventualitésT . outefoisla Courjuge nécessaire
de souligner dès maintenant que, si l'intention de soumettre les otages à
toute espèce de procès criminel ou d'enquête devaitse traduire dans les
faits, cela constituerait une violation grave des obligations incombant à
l'Iran en vertu de l'article 31,paragraphe 1,de laconvention de Vienne de

1961.Ceparagraphe est desplus formels : L'agentdiplomatique jouit de
l'immunitéde la juridiction pénalede 1'Etataccréditaire. De même,si
l'on essayait de contraindre les otages à témoigner, possibilité évoqué àe
nouveau lors du séjouren Iran de la commision du Secrétaire général,
l'Iran violerait sans nul doute le paragraphe 2 du mêmearticle 31 de la
convention de 1961suivant lequel :((L'agent diplomatique n'estpas obli-
géde donner son témoignage. O

80. Les faits de l"espèce,envisagés à la lumière des règles de droit

applicables, font donc ressortir de la façon la plus nette lesmanquements
successifs, et persistantà cejour, de l'Iran aux obligations dont il est tenu
envers les Etats-Unis en vertu des conventions de Vienne de 1961et de
1963ainsi que du traitéde 1955.Avant de tirer de cette constatation les
conclusions qui en dé:coulentsur leplan dela responsabilitéinternationale
de 1'Etat iranien à l'égarddes Etats-Unis d'Amérique,la Cour estime
devoir examiner un alutrepoint. Elle ne peut en effet ignorer que, du côté
iranien, dans des formes souvent imprécises, l'idéea étéavancéeque le
comportement de 1'Etatiranien, lors des événementsdu 4 novembre 1979

et par la suite, pourrait êtrejustifiépar l'existence de circonstances spé-
ciales.
81. En effet, dans ses lettres des 9 décembre 1979et 16mars 1980,le
ministre des affaires étrangères d'Iran, comme on l'a déjà rappelé, a
affirméque la présenteaffaire n'estqu'aun élément marginaletsecondaire
d'un problèmed'ensemble )).Il a soutenu que ceproblème englobe entre
autres plus de vingt-cinq ans d'ingérences continuellespar les Etats-Unis
dans les affaires intérieuresde l'Iran, d'exploitation éhontéede notre pays

et de multiples crimes perpétréscontre le peuple iranien, envers et contre
toutes les normes internationales et humanitaires )>.Dans la première des
deux lettres, il citait notamment parmi les <(crimes ))qu'il imputait aux
Etats-Unis lacomplicitéqu'aurait euel'Agencecentrale derenseignements
dans le coup d'Etat de 1953 et la restauration du Chah. Invoquant cesInvoking these alleged crimes of the United States, the Iranian Foreign
Minister took the position that theUnited States' Application could not be
examinedby the Court divorced from its proper context, which heinsisted
was "the whole political dossier of the relations between Iran and the
United States over the last 25 years".
82. The Court must howeverobserve, first of all,that thematters alleged
in the Iranian Foreign Minister's lettersof9 December 1979and 16March
1980are of a kind whch, if invoked in legal proceedings, must clearly be
established to the satisfaction of the tribunal withal1the requisite proof.
The Court, in its Order of 15 December 1979, pointed out that if the
Iranian Government considered the alleged activities of the United States
in Iran legally to have a close connection with the subject-matter of the

Application it was open to Iran to present its own case regarding those
activities to the Court by way of defence to the United States' claims.The
Iranian Government, however,didnot appear before theCourt. Moreover,
even in his letter of 16March 1980,transmitted to the Court some three
months after the issue of that Order, the Iranian Foreign Minister did not
furnish the Court with any further information regarding the alleged
crirninal activities of the United States in Iran, or explain on what legal
basis he considered these allegations to constitute a relevant answer tothe
United States' claims. The large body of information submitted by the
United States itself to the Court includes, it is true, some statements
emanating from Iranian authorities or from the militants in whch refer-
ence is made to alleged espionage and interference in Iran by the United
Statescentred upon its Embassy in Tehran. These statements are, however,
of the same general character as the assertions of allegedcriminal activities
of the United States contained in the Foreign Minister's letters, and are
unsupported by evidence furnished by Iran before the Court. Hence they
do not provide abasis on which the Court could formajudicial opinion on
the truth or othenvise of the matters there alleged.

83. In any case, even if the alleged criminal activities of the United
States in Iran could be considered as havingbeen established, the question
would remain whether they could be regarded by the Court asconstituting
ajustification of Iran's conduct and thus a defence to the United States'

claims in the present case. The Court, however, is unable to accept that
they can be so regarded. This isbecause diplomatic law itself provides the
necessary means of defence against, and sanction for, illicit activities by
members of diplomatic or consular missions.

84. The Vienna Conventions of 1961and 1963contain express provi-
sions to meet the casewhen members of an embassy staff, under the cover
of diplomatic privileges and immunities, engage in such abuses of their
functions as espionageor interference in the interna1affairs of the receiv-
ing State.It is precisely with the possibility of such abuses in contempla-
tion that Article 41,paragraph 1,of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 38

crimes reprochésaux Etats-Unis, leministre des affairesétrangèresd'Iran
estimait que la Cour ne pouvait examiner la requêtedes Etats-Unis en
dehors de son vrai contexte qui, insistait-il, était'ensemble du dossier
politique des relation~sentre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis au cours de ces vingt-
cinq dernières années )).
82. La Cour doit cependant souligner avant tout que les faits allégués
dans les lettres du ministre des affaires étrangères d'Iran des 9 décembre
1979et 16mars 1980sont de nature telle que, s'ilsétaientinvoquésdans
une instancejudiciaire, ilsdevraient êtreclairement établiàla satisfaction

du tribunal avec tolites les preuves voulues. Dans son ordonnance du
15décembre1979,laCour afaitobserver que, sileGouvernement de l'Iran
estimait que lesactivitésalléguéesdesEtats-Unisen Iran étaienten étroite
connexitéjuridique avec l'objet de la requête,il étaitloisible à l'Iran de
développer à ce sujet sa propre argumentation devant la Cour comme
moyen de défensecontre les demandes des Etats-Unis. Or le Gouver-
nement de l'Iran n'a pas comparu. De plus, mêmedans sa lettre du
16mars 1980,parvenue àla Cour trois moisenvironaprès que cette ordon-
nance eut étérendue, le ministre des affaires étrangères d'Irann'a fourni
à la Cour aucun renseignement complémentaire sur les allégationsd'agis-
sements criminels de:sEtats-Unis en Iran et n'a pas non plus indiquésur
quelle basejuridique il considère que ces allégationsconstituent une ré-

ponse pertinente aux demandes des Etats-Unis. Il est vrai que, parmi les
nombreux renseigneimentssoumis àla Courpar les Etats-Unis, on trouve
certaines déclarations de personnalités iraniennes ou de militants faisant
mention des actes d'espionnage et d'ingérence auxquels lesEtats-Unis se
seraient livrésen Irarà~artir de leur ambassade deTéhéran.Toutefoisces
déclarations ont le mêmecaractère de généralité que les allégations rela-
tivesaux agissements criminels des Etats-Unis quifigurent dans leslettres
du ministredes affaires étrangèreset ellesne s'appuient sur aucune preuve
fournie par l'Iran dont la Cour aurait étésaisie. Elles ne constituent donc
pas une basepermettant à laCour deseformeruneopinionjudiciaire surla
véracitéde ces allégations.
83. De toute manière, mêmedans l'hypothèse oùles agissements cri-
minels allégués à l'encontre des Etats-Unis en Iran pourraient êtreconsi-

déréscommeétablis., iresteraità déterminersi,de l'avisde la Cour, ilsne
pourraient constituer unejustification du comportement de l'Iran et par
conséquentun moyen de défenseopposable aux demandesdesEtats-Unis
dans la présente instance. La Cour ne saurait accepter cette manière de
voir. En effet ledroit diplomatique lui-mêmefournit lesmoyens dedéfense
nécessaires ainsique dessanctions contre lesactivités illicitesde membres
de missions diplomatiques ou consulaires.
84. Les conventions de Vienne de 1961 et de 1963 renferment des
dispositions express,espour le cas où des membres d'une mission diplo-
matique, sous le co.uvert des privilèges et immunités diplomatiques, se
livrentà desabusde fonctions telsque l'espionnageou l'immixtiondans les
affaires intérieures de l'Etat accréditaire. C'est précisémenp t arce que
de tels abus sont possibles que l'article 41,paragraphe 1,de la conventionRelations, and Article 55, paragraph 1,of the Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations, provide

"Without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is theduty
of al1persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the
laws and regulations of the receiving State.They also have a duty not
to interfere in the internal affairs of that State."

Paragraph 3 of Article 41 of the 1961 Convention further States : "The
prernises of the mission must not be used in any manner incompatible with

thefunctions of the missions ...": an analogous provision, with respect to
consular premises is to be found in Article 55, paragraph 2, of the 1963
Convention.
85. Thus, it is for the very purpose of providing a remedy for such
possible abuses of diplomatic functions that Article 9 of the 1961 Con-
vention on Diplomatic Relations stipulates :

"1. The receiving State rnay at any time and without having to
explain its decision, notify the sending State that the head of the
mission or any member of the diplomatic staff of the mission is
persona non grata or that anyother member of the staff of the mission

is not acceptable. In any such case, the sending State shall, as appro-
priate, either recall the person concerned or terminate his functions
with the mission. A person rnay be declared non grata or not accept-
able before arriving in the territory of the receiving State.
2. If the sending State refuses or fails within a reasonable period to
carry out its obligations under paragraph 1of this Article, the receiv-
ing State rnay refuse to recognize the person concerned asa member of

the mission."

The 1963 Convention contains, in Article 23, paragraphs 1 and 4, analo-

gous provisions in respect of consular officers and consular staff. Para-
graph 1of Article 9of the 1961Convention, and paragraph 4 of Article 23
of the 1963 Convention, take account of the difficulty that rnay be ex-
perienced in practice of proving such abuses in every case or, indeed, of
determining exactly when exercise of the diplomatic function, expressly
recognized in Article 3 (1) (d) of the 1961Convention, of "ascertaining by
al1lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State" rnay
be considered as involving such acts as "espionage" or "interference in

internal affairs". The way inwhichArticle 9,paragraph 1,takes account of
any such difficulty is by providing expressly in its opening sentence that
the receiving State rnay "at any time and without having to explain its
decision" notify the sending State that any particular member of its dip-
lomatic mission is ')ersona non grata" or "not acceptable" (and similarly
Article 23, paragraph 4,of the 1963Convention provides that "the receiv-
ing State is not obliged to give to the sending State reasons for its de-de Vienne sur les relations diplomatiques, dont s'inspire l'article 55,
paragraphe 1, de la convention de Vienne sur les relations consulaires,
dispose :

<<Sans préjudice de leurs privilègeset immunités, toutes les per-
sonnes qui bénéficientde ces privilèges etimmunitésont le devoir de
respecter les lois et règlementsde 17Etataccréditaire.Elles ont égale-
ment le devoir de ne pas s'immiscerdans lesaffairesintérieuresde cet
Etat.

L'article 41, paragraphe 3, de la convention de 1961 spécifie enoutre :
<(Les locaux de la mission ne seront pas utilisésd'une manière incompa-
tible avec lesfonctions de la mission ;la convention de 1963contient des
dispositions analogues concernant leslocaux consulaires en son article 55,
paragraphe 2.
85. C'est donc afin précisémentde fournir un remède à de tels abus
éventuelsdes fonctions diplomatiques que l'article 9 de la convention de
1961 sur les relations diplomatiques stipule :

<(1. L'Etat ac,créditairepeut,à tout moment etsans avoir àmotiver
sa décision, informer 1'Etat accréditant que le chef ou tout autre
membredu personnel diplomatique dela mission estpersona nongrata
ou que tout autre membre du personnel de la mission n'est pas

acceptable. L'Et,ataccréditantrappellera alors lapersonne encauseou
mettra fin à ses fonctions auprès de la mission, selon le cas. Une
personne peut êtredéclaréenon grata ou non acceptable avant d'ar-
river sur le territoire de'Etataccréditaire.
2. Si1'Etatac,créditantrefuse d'exécuter, ou n'exécutp eas dans un
délai raisonnable, les obligations qui lui incombent aux termes du
paragraphe 1 d~iprésent article, 1'Etat accréditaire peut refuser de
reconnaître à la personne en cause la qualitéde membre de la mis-
sion.)>

On trouve, à l'article 23, paragraphes 1 et 4, de la convention de 1963,des
dispositions analogues au sujet des fonctionnaires et du personnel consu-
laire. L'article 9, parapraphe l, de la convention de 1961 et l'article 23,
paragraphe 4, de la (conventionde 1963tiennent compte de la difficulté
qu'il peut y avoir en pratique àprouver de tels abus dans chaque cas ou

même à déterminer exactement quand l'exercicede la fonction diploma-
tique, expressémentvisée àI'article3,paragraphe 1d),dela convention de
1961,qui consiste à (1s'informer par tous lesmoyens licites des conditions
et de l'évolution desévénementsdans 1'Etat accréditaire D, peut être
considérécomme setraduisant par des actes d'~espionnage )>,ou d'<<in-
gérencedans les affaires intérieures )>Pour faire face à cette difficulté,
I'article 9, paragraphe 1, prévoit expressémentdans sa première phrase
que 1'Etat accréditaire peut << à tout moment et sans avoir à motiver sa

décision )informer I'Etat accréditant qu'un membrede sa mission diplo-
matique est ccpersonanon grata » ou <<n'est pas acceptable >>(de même
l'article 23,paragraphe 4, de la convention de 1963dispose que <1'Etatdecision"). Beyond that remedy for dealing with abuses of the diplomatic
function by individual members of a mission, a receiving State has in its
hands a more radical remedy if abuses of their functions by members of a
mission reach serious proportions.This isthe power whicheveryreceiving
State has, at its own discretion, to break off diplomatic relations with a

sending State and to cal1 for the immediate closure of the offending
mission.
86. The rules of diplomatic law, in short, constitute a self-contained
régime which,on the one hand, lays down the receivingState'sobligations
regarding the facilities, privileges and immunities to be accorded to dip-
lomatic missions and,on the other, foresees their possible abuse by mem-
bers of the mission and specifies the means at the disposa1of the receiving
Statetocounter any such abuse. These means are, by their nature, entirely
efficacious, for unless the sending State recalls the member of the mission
objected to forthwith, the prospect of the almost immediate loss of lus
privileges and immunities, because of thewithdrawal by the receivingState
of his recognition as a member of the mission, willin practice compel that
person, in his own interest, to depart at once. But the principle of the
inviolability of the persons of diplomatic agents and the premises of
diplomatic missions isone of the veryfoundations of this long-established
régime,to theevolution ofwhich the traditions of Islam madeasubstantial

contribution. The fundamental character of the principle of inviolability
is,moreover,stronglyunderlined by the provisions ofArticles 44and 45of
the Convention of 1961(cf. also Articles 26 and 27 of the Convention of
1963). Even in the case of armed conflict or in the case of a breach in
diplomatic relations those provisions require that both the inviolability of
the members of a diplomatic mission and of the premises, property and
archives of the mission must be respected by the receivingState.Naturally,
the observance of tlus principle does not mean - and tlus the Applicant
Government expressly acknowledges - that a diplomatic agent caught in
the act of comrnitting an assault orother offence may not, on occasion, be
briefly arrested by the police of the receiving State in order to prevent the
commission of theparticular crime. But such eventualities bear norelation
at al1to what occurred in the present case.
87. In the present case, the Iranian Government did not break off
diplomatic relations with the United States ;and in response to a question
put to him by a Member of the Court, the United States Agent informed

the Court that at no time before the events of 4 November 1979had the
Iranian Government declared, or indicated any intention to declare, any
member of the United States didomatic or consular staff in Tehran Der-
sona non grata. The Iranian Government did not, therefore, employ the
remedies placed at its disposa1by diplomatic law specifically for dealing
with activities of the kind of which it now complains. Instead, it allowed a
group of militants to attack and occupy the United States Embassy by
force, and to seizethe diplomaticand consular staff ashostages ;instead, it
has endorsed that action of those militants and has deliberately main-
tained their occupation of the Embassy and detention of its staff as arésidencen'est pas teinude communiquer à 1'Etatd'envoi lesraisons de sa
décision O). En plus de ce moyen de remédier aux abus de la fonction

diplomatique que peuvent commettre les membres d'une mission à titre
individuel, 1'Etataccréditaire dispose d'un remède plus radical si les abus
prennent de graves proportions. C'est lepouvoir discrétionnaire qu'a tout
Etat accréditaire de: rompre les relations diplomatiques avec un Etat
accréditantet dederiander lafermeture immédiatede lamission cou~able.

86. Bref les règlesdu droit diplomatique constituent un régime sesuf-
fisant à lui-même qui,d'une part, énonceles obligations de 1'Etat accré-
ditaire en matière de facilités,de privilègeset d'immunités à accorder aux
missions diplomatiqiues et, d'autre part, envisage le mauvais usage que
pourraient en faire des membres de la mission et précise les moyens dont

dispose 1'Etataccréditaire pour parer à de tels abus. Ces moyens sont par
nature d'une efficacité totale car, si 1'Etat accréditant ne rappelle pas
sur-le-champ le mernbre de la mission visé,la perspective de la perte
presque immédiate de ses privilèges et immunités, du fait que 1'Etat
accréditaire ne le rec,onnaîtra plus comme membre de la mission, aura en

pratique pour résultat de l'obliger, dans son propre intérêt,à partir sans
tarder. Le principe de l'inviolabilité despersonnes des agents diploma-
tiques et des locaux des missions diplomatiques est l'un des fondements
mêmesde ce régimt:établi de longue date et à l'évolution duquel les
traditions de l'Islam (ontapporté une contribution substantielle. Le carac-
tère fondamental du1principe d'inviolabilité est en outre souligné avec

force par lesdispositions des articles44 et 45 de la convention de 1961(voir
aussi les articles 26 et 27 de la convention de 1963).Mêmeen cas de conflit
arméou de rupture clesrelations diplomatiques, ces dispositions obligent
1'Etat accréditaire à respecter l'inviolabilité des membres d'une mission
diplomatique aussi bien que celle de ses locaux, de ses biens et de ses

archives. Naturellem,ent l'observation de ceprincipe ne veut pas dire - et le
gouvernement demandeur l'a d'ailleurs expressément reconnu - qu'un
agent diplomatique pris en flagrant délit d'agression oud'autre infraction
ne puisse. en certaines circonstances, êtrebrièvement détenupar la police
de 1'Etat accréditaire à des fins préventives. Mais de telles éventualités
n'ont aucun rapport avec ce qui s'est passéen l'espèce.

87. En l'occurrence le Gouvernement de l'Iran n'a pas rompu les rela-
tions diplomatiques avec les Etats-Unis ; répondant à une question d'un
membre de la Cour, l'agent des Etats-Unis a indiqué qu'à aucun moment
avant les événementsdu 4 novembre 1979 ledit gouvernement n'avait
déclaréou manifesté l'intention de déclarerpersona~nongrata un membre

quelconque du personnel diplomatique ou consulaire des Etats-Unis à
Téhéran.Le Gouverinement de l'Iran n'a donc pas usé des moyens que le
droitdiplomatique riettait àsa disposition,afin précisémentde faire face à
des activités du genre de celles dont il se plaint maintenant. Il a, au
contraire, laisséun groupe de militants attaquer et occuper l'ambassade
des Etats-Unis par force et prendre des membres du personnel diplo-

matique et consulaire en otages ; il a, au contraire, approuvé cette action
des militants et délibkrémentlaissése prolonger leur occupation de I'am-41 DIPLOMATlC AND CONSULAR STAFF (NDGMENT)

means of coercing the sending State. It has, at the same time, refused
altogether to discuss this situation with representatives of the United
States. The Court, therefore, can only conclude that Iran did not have

recourse to thenormal and efficacious means at itsdisposal, but resorted to
coercive action against the United States Embassy and its staff.

88. In an address given on 5 November 1979,the Ayatollah Khomeini
traced the origin oftheoperation carried out bythe Islamic militants on the
previous day to the news of the arriva1of the former Shah of Iran in the
United States. That fact may no doubt have been the ultimate catalyst of
the resentment felt in certain circles in Iran and among the Iranian popu-
lation against the former Shah for his alleged misdeeds, and also against
the United StatesGovernment which wasbeingpublicly accused ofhaving
restored him to the throne, of having supported him for many years and of

planning to go on doing so. But whatever be the truth in regard to those
matters, they couldhardly beconsidered ashavingprovided ajustification
for the attack on the United States Embassy and its diplomatic mission.
Whatever extenuation of the responsibility to beattached to the conduct of
the Iranian authorities may be found in the offence felt by them because of
theadmission of theShahtotheUnited States,that feelingof offencecould
not affect the imperativecharacter of the legalobligations incumbentupon
the Iranian Government which is not altered by a state of diplomatic
tension between the two countries. Stilllesscould a mere refusa1or failure
on thepart of the United Statestoextradite the Shah to Iran beconsidered
to modify the obligations of the Iranian authorities, quite apart from any
legal difficulties, in intemal or international law, there rnight be in acced-
ine to such a reauest for extradition.
u
89. ~ccordin~i~, the Court finds that no circumstances exist in the
present case which are capable of negativing the fundamentally unlawful
character of theconduct pursued by the Iranian State on4 November 1979
and thereafter. This finding does not however exclude the possibility that
some of the circumstances alleged, if duly established, may later be found
to have some relevance in determining the consequences of the responsi-
bility incurred by the Iranian State with respect to that conduct, although
they could not be considered to alter its unlawful character.

90. On the basis of the foregoing detailed examination of the merits of
the case, the Court finds that Iran, bycornrnitting successiveand continu-
ing breaches of the obligations laid upon it by the Vienna Conventions
of 1961 and 1963on Diplomatic and Consular Relations, the Treaty of
Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights of 1955, and the ap-
plicable rules of general international law, has incurred responsibility
towards the United States. Asto the consequences of this finding, itclearlybassade et la détention du personnel pour faire peser une contrainte sur
1'Etataccréditant. Il s'est,en mêmetemps,absolument refuséàdiscuter de

la situation avec des représentants des Etats-Unis. La Cour ne peut donc
que conclure que le Ciouvernement de l'Iran n'a pas employé les moyens
normaux et efficaces qui étaient à sa disposition, mais a eu recours à des
mesures de contrainte contre I'ambassade des Etats-Unis et son per-
sonnel.
88. Dans une déclaration du 5 novembre 1979,l'ayatollah Khomeini a
attribué à la nouvelle:de l'arrivéede l'ancien chah d'Iran aux Etats-Unis

l'origine de l'opération effectuée la veille par les militants islamiques. Ce
fait peut sans doute avoir étél'ultime catalyseur du ressentiment qu'éprou-
vaient certains milieux d'Iran et lepeuple iranien contre leChahdétrônéet
les méfaitsqui lui étaientreprochés, ainsi que contre le Gouvernement des
Etats-Unis, accusépubliquement de l'avoir rétabli sur le trône, de l'avoir
soutenu en da ntde riombreuses années et de vouloir continuer à le faire.
Mais, quelle que soit la véritéàce sujet, il serait difficile de troulàrune

justification à l'attaque contre l'ambassade des Etats-Unis et sa mission
diplomatique. Mêmesi l'on pouvait voir dans l'offense ressentie par les
autorités iraniennes en raison de l'admission du Chah aux Etats-Unis une
atténuation de la responsabilité découlant de leur propre comportement,
ledit sentiment d'offense ne pouvait modifier le caractère impératif des
obligations juridique:^incombant au Gouvernement de l'Iran, qu'un état

de tension diplomatique entre les deux Etats ne saurait amoindrir. Encore
moins pourrait-on coinsidérerque lesimple refus des Etats-Unis d'extrader
leChah en Iran ou lefait de ne pas l'extrader ait modifiélesobligationsdes
autorités iraniennes, sans mêmeparler des difficultés juridiques qu'il
pourrait y avoir, en diroitinterne ou en droit international, àaccéderàune
telle demande d'extradition.
89. En conséquence la Cour conclut à l'inexistence en l'espècede cir-

constances qui soient:de nature à effacer le caractère fondamentalement
illicite du comportement adopté par 1'Etatiranien le 4 novembre 1979et
depuis lors. Cette cc~nclusionn'exclut cependant pas que certaines des
circonstances alléguées, au casoù elles seraient dûment établies, puissent
se voir reconnaître ultérieurement quelque pertinence quand il s'agira de
déterminer leseffets de la responsabilité encourue par 1'Etatiranien du fait

de son comportement, encore qu'on ne puisse les tenir pour modifiant le
caractère illicite de celui-ci.

90. En conclusion de l'analyse détailléedu fond de l'affaire effectuée
dans les paragraphes qui précèdent, la Cour tient que les violations suc-

cessives et continues par l'Iran des obligations qui lui incombent au titre
des conventions de Vienne de 1961et de 1963 sur les relations diploma-
tiques et consulaires, du traité d'amitié,de commerce et de droits consu-
laires de 1955 et des règles du droit international général enla matière
engagent la responsabilité de l'Iran à l'égarddes Etats-Unis. Une consé-entails an obligation on the part of the Iranian State to make reparation for
the injury thereby caused to the United States. Since however Iran's
breaches of its obligations are still continuing, the form and amount of
such reparation cannot be determined at the present date.
91. At the same time the Court finds itself obliged to stress the cumu-
lative effect of Iran's breaches of its obligations when taken together. A

marked escalation of these breaches can be seen to have occurred in the
transition from the failure on the part of the Iranian authorities to oppose
the armed attack by themilitants on 4 November 1979and their seizure of
the Embassy premises and staff, to the almost irnmediate endorsement by
those authonties of the situation thus created, and then to their maintain-
ing deliberately for many months the occupation of the Embassy and
detention of its staff by a group of armed militants acting on behalf of the
State for the purpose of forcing the United States to bow to certain
demands. Wrongfully to deprive human beings of their freedom and to
subject them to physical constraint in conditions of hardship is in itself
manifestly incompatible with the principles of the Charter of the United
Nations, as well as with the fundamental principles enunciated in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. But what has above al1to be
emphasized is the extent and seriousness of the conflict between the
conduct of the Iranian Stateand its obligations under the whole corpus of
the international rules of which diplomatic and consular lawiscomprised,
rules the fundamental character of which the Court must here again
strongly affirm. In its Order of 15December 1979,the Court madeapoint
of stressing that the obligations laid on States by the two Vienna Con-
ventions are of cardinal importance for the maintenance of good relations

between States in the interdependent world of today. "There is no more
fundamental prerequisitefortheconduct of relations between States", the
Court there said, "than the inviolability of diplomatic envoys and embas-
sies, so that throughout hstory nations of al1creeds and cultures have
observed reciprocal obligations for that purpose." The institution of
diplomacy, the Court continued, hasproved tobe "an instrument essential
for effective CO-operation in the international community, and for en-
abling States, irrespective of their diffenng constitutional and social
systems, to achieve mutual understanding and to resolve their differences
by peaceful means" (I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 19).
92. Itis a matter of deep regret that the situation which occasioned
those observations has not been rectified since they were made. Having
regard to their importance the Court considers itessential toreiterate them
in the present Judgment. The frequency with which at the present time the
principles of international law governing diplomatic and consular rela-
tions are set at naught by individuals or groups of individuals is already
deplorable. But this case is unique and of very particular gravity because
here it is not only private individuals or groups of individuals that have
disregarded and setat naught theinviolability ofaforeignembassy, but the
government of the receivingState itself.Therefore in recalling yet again the
extreme importance of the principles of lawwhichit iscalledupon toapply PERSONNEL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 42

quence évidente de cette constatation est que I'Etat iranien a l'obligation
de réparerlepréjudiceainsi causéaux Etats-Unis.Toutefois, lesviolations
des obligations de l'Iran persistant, les formes et le montant de la répa-
ration ne peuvent êtredéterminés à la date du présent arrêt.
9 1. En mêmetemps laCour estimedevoir souligner l'effetcumulatif des
manquements de l'Iranà ses obligations, considérésglobalement. Une
véritableprogression marque en effet lepassage de l'absence d'opposition

des autoritésiranienries devant l'attaque arméedes militants et la capture
des locaux et du perscinnelde l'ambassade le4 novembre 1979,a la caution
apportéepresqueimmédiatement par lesautoritésiraniennes àla situation
ainsi créée, puisau maintien délibérépendant de nombreux mois de
l'occupation de l'ambassade et de la détention de son personnel par un
groupe de militants armés agissant pour le compte de 1'Etatafin de con-
traindre par cemoyen lesEtats-Unis à seplierà certaines exigences.Lefait
de priver abusivement de leur libertédesêtreshumainset de lessoumettre
dans desconditions pénibles à une contrainte physique est manifestement
incompatible avec lesprincipes de la Charte desNations Unies et avecles
droitsfondamentaux énoncésdans la déclarationuniverselle desdroitsde

l'homme. Mais ce qu'il convientde souligner surtout, c'estl'ampleur etla
gravitédu contrasteentre lecomportement adoptépar l'Etat iranien et les
obligations que lui impose l'ensemble de règlesinternationales constitué
par le droit diplomatique et consulaire, dont la Cour doit fermement
réaffirmerle caractère fondamental. Dans son ordonnance du 15décem-
bre 1979,la Cour avait tenu à souligner que les obligations imposées aux
Etats par les deux coriventions de Vienne sont d'une importance capitale
pour le maintien de bonnes relations entre Etats dans le monde interdé-
pendant d'aujourd'hui.Comme la Cour l'adit alors, <dans laconduitedes
relations entre Etats, iln'estpas d'exigenceplusfondamentale que cellede
l'inviolabilité desdiplomates et des ambassades et ...c'est ainsi que, au

long de l'histoire, des nations de toutes croyances et toutes cultures ont
observédes obligatioris réciproquesà cet effetH.L'institution de la diplo-
matie. a-t-elle~oursuiivi. s'est avéréeun instrument essentiel de coo~é-
ration efficacedans la communauté internationale, qui permet aux ~tits,
nonobstant lesdifférencesdeleurs svstèmesconstitutionnels et sociaux. de
parvenir à la compréhensionmutueile et de résoudreleursdivergences par
des moyens pacifiques >(C.I.J. Recueil 1979, p. 19).
92. La Cour regrette profondément que la situation ayant donnélieu à
ces observations n'ait pas étécorrigéedepuis lors. Vu leur importance, la
Cour estime essentielde réitérer lesditeobservations dans leprésentarrêt.
La fréquence avec laquelle, à l'époque actuelle,les principes du droit
international qui régissent lesrelations diplomatiques et consulaires sont

réduits à néant par cles individus ou des groupes d'individus est déjà
déplorable en elle-même. Mais l'affaire soumise à la Cour est unique et
d'une gravité toute particulière parce qu'en l'occurrence ce ne sont pas
seulement des individus privés oudes groupes d'individus qui ont agi au
méprisdel'inviolabilité d'uneambassadeétrangère ;c'estlegouvernement
de 1'Etataccréditairelui-même quil'a fait. En rappelant donc à nouveauin the present case, the Court considers it to be its duty to draw the
attention of the entire international community, of which Iran itself has
been amember sincetimeimmemorial, to theirreparableharm that maybe

caused by events of thekind now before the Court. Sucheventscannot fail
to undermine the edifice of law carefully constructed by mankind over a
period of centuries, the maintenance of which is vital for the security and
well-being of the complex international comrnunity of the present day, to
which it is more essential than ever that the rules developed to ensure the
ordered progress of relations between its members should be constantly
and scrupulously respected.

93. Before drawing theappropriate conclusions fromitsfindings on the
merits in this case, the Court considers that it cannot let pass without
comment the incursion into the territory of Iran made by United States
rnilitary units on 24-25 April 1980,an account of whch has been given
earlier in ths Judgment (paragraph 32). No doubt the United States
Govemment mayhave had understandable preoccupations with respect to
the well-being of its nationals held hostage in its Embassy for over five
months. No doubt also the United States Government may have had
understandable feelings of frustration at Iran's long-continued detention
of thehostages, notwithstanding tworesolutions of the SecurityCouncil as

well as the Court's own Order of 15December 1979calling expressly for
their immediate release. Nevertheless, in the circumstances of the present
proceedings, the Court cannot fail to express its concem in regard to the
United States' incursion into Iran. When, as previously recalled, this case
had become ready for hearing on 19 February 1980, the United States
Agent requested the Court, owing to the delicate stage of certain negotia-
tions, to defer settinga date for the hearings. Subsequently, on 11March,
the Agent informed the Court of the United States Govemment's anxiety
to obtain an earlyjudgment on the merits of the case. The hearings were
accordingly held on 18, 19and 20 March, and the Court was in course of
preparing thepresentjudgment adjudicatingupon theclaims oftheUnited
States against Iran when the operation of 24April 1980took place. The
Court therefore feels bound to observe that an operation undertaken in
those circumstances, from whatever motive, is of a kind calculated to
undermine respect for thejudicial process in international relations ; and
to recall that in paragraph 47, 1 B, ofits Order of 15December 1979the
Court had indicated that no action was to be taken by either party which
might aggravate the tension between the two countries.
94. At the sametime,however,the Court mustpoint out that neither the
question of thelegalityof the operation of24 April1980, under theCharter
of the United Nations and under general international law, nor any pos-
siblequestion of responsibility flowingfrom it, isbefore theCourt. It must

also point out that this question can have no beanng on the evaluation of PERSONN1:L DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE ~RRÊT) 43

l'extrêmeimportance des principes de droit dont elle est amenée à faire
application en la présente affaire, la Cour croit de son devoir d'attirer
l'attention de la communautéinternationale tout entière, ycompris l'Iran,

qui en est membre depuis des temps immémoriaux, sur le danger
peut-être irréparabled'événements comme ceuxqui ont étésoumis à la
Cour. Ces événementsne peuvent que saper à la base un édificejuri-
dique patiemment coinstmit par l'humanitéau cours des siècleset dont la
sauvegarde est essentielle pour la sécurité etle bien-êtred'une commu-
nautéinternationale a.ussicomplexe que celled'aujourd'hui, qui a plus que
jamais besoin du respect constant et scrupuleux des règlesprésidant au
développement ordonné des relations entre ses membres.

93. Avant de tirer les conclusions appropriées de ses constatations
quant au fond de l'affaire, laCour considèrequ'elle ne peut laisser passer
sans commentaire l'incursion en territoire iranien d'unités militaires des
Etats-Unis les 24-25 avril 1980,qui est évoquéeplus haut dans le présent

arrêt (paragraphe 32). La préoccupation qu'a pu éprouverle Gouverne-
ment des Etats-Unis qluantau sortde sesressortissants détenus enotages à
l'ambassade depuis plus de cinq mois est certes compréhensible. Sans
doute a-t-il pu éprouveraussi un sentiment de frustration compréhensible
devant la détention prolongée des otages par l'Iran, en dépit de deux
résolutions du Consi:il de sécuritéet de l'ordonnance de la Cour du
15décembre 1979 demandant exvressément leur libération immédiate.
Néanmoins,dans lescirconstances de laprésenteinstance, la Cour ne peut
manquer d'exprimer 11s:ouci que lui inspire l'incursion américaineen Iran.
Lorsque, comme on l'a déjà rappelé,l'instance s'était trouvée en étatle
19février1980,l'agent des Etats-Unis avait demandé à la Cour, en raison
de laphase délicateque traversaient certaines négociations,de ne fixer que
plus tard ladate des audiences. Par la suite,le 11mars, l'agentainforméla
Cour du désirdu Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'obtenir aussitôt que
possible un arrêtsur 11f:ond de l'affaire. Desaudiences ont donc eu lieu les

18, 19et 20 mars, et la Cour délibéraitsurleprésentarrêtparlequel ellese
prononce sur lesdemandes des Etats-Unis contre l'Iran quand l'opération
du 24 avril 1980s'est produite. En conséquencela Cour se sent tenue de
faire obsemer que, quels qu'en soient les motifs, une opération entreprise
dans ces circonstances est de nature à nuire au respect du règlement
judiciaire dans les relations internationales; et de rappeler qu'au para-
graphe 47, 1 B,de son ordonnance du 15décembre1979elleavait indiqué
qu'aucune mesure de nature àaggraver la tension entre les deux pays ne
devait être ri se.
94. La Cour doit néanmoinssouligner en mêmetemps qu'ellen'est pas
saisiede la question du caractère licite ou illicite de l'opérationdu 24 avril
1980au regard de la Charte des Nations Unies et du droit international
général,ou des responsabilités éventuellesqui en découleraient. Elle doit
aussi souligner que cette question ne saurait influer sur l'appréciation duthe conduct of the Iranian Government over six months earlier, on 4 No-
vember 1979,whch is the subject-matter of the United States' Applica-
tion. It follows that the findings reached by the Court in this Judgment are
not affected by that operation.

95. For these reasons,
THECOURT,

1. By thirteen votes to two,
Decides that the Islamic Republic of Iran, by the conduct which the

Court has set out in this Judgment, has violated in several respects, and is
stillviolating, obligations owed byit to the United States ofAmerica under
international conventions in force between the two countries, as well as
under long-established rules of general international law ;

IN FAVOUR : PresidentSir HurnphreyWaldock ;Vice-President Elias;Judges
Forster,Gros, Lachs,NagendraSingh,Ruda,Mosler,Oda,Ago,El-Enan,
Sette-Camaraand Baxter.
AGAINST :Judges Morozovand Tarazi.

2. By thirteen votes to two,

Decides that the violations of these obligations engage the responsibility
of the Islamic Republic of Iran towards the United States of America
under international law ;

IN FAVOUR : PresidentSirHurnphreyWaldock ;Vice-President Elias;Judges
Forster,Gros, Lachs,NagendraSingh,Ruda, Mosler,Oda,Ago,El-Enan,
Sette-Carnaraand Baxter.
AGAINST :Judges Morozovand Tarazi.

3. Unanimously,

Decides that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran must
immediatelytake al1steps to redress the situation resulting from theevents
of 4 November 1979 and what followed from these events, and to that
end :

(a) must immediately terminate the unlawful detention of the United
States Chargé d'affairesand other diplomatic and consular staff and
other United States nationals now held hostage in Iran, and must
immediately release each and every one and entrust them to the pro-
tecting Power (Article 45 of the 1961Vienna Convention on Diplo-
matic Relations) ; PERSONNBL DIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE (ARRÊT) 44

comportement du Gouvernement de l'Iran depuis plus de sixmois, àpartir
du 4 novembre 1979,qui constitue l'objet de la requêtedes Etats-Unis. 11
s'ensuitque lesconcluisionsauxquelles laCour estparvenue dans leprésent
arrêtne sont pas mo,difiéesdu fait de cette opération.

95. Par ces motifs.
LACOUR.

1. Par treize voix contre deux,
Décideque, par le comportement mis en évidencepar la Cour dans le

présentarrêt, la Républiqueislamique d'Iran a violé à plusieurs égardset
continue de violer des.obligations dont elleest tenue envers les Etats-Unis
d'Amériqueen vertu de conventions internationalesen vigueur entre les
deux pays ainsi que de règlesdudroitinternational généralconsacréep sar
une longue pratique :,

POUR : Sir Humphrey Waldock, Président; M. Elias, Vice-Président;
MM. Forster, Gros, Lachs, Nagendra Singh, Ruda, Mosler, Oda, Ago,
El-Enan, Sette-Camara,Baxter, juges.
CONTRE : MM. Morc~zov et Tarazi,juges.

2. Par treize voix contre deux,

Décideque lesviolations decesobligations engagent la responsabilitéde
la République islamickued'Iran envers les Etats-Unis d'Amériqueselon le
droit international ;

POUR : Sir Humphrey Waldock, Président; M. Elias, Vice-Président;
MM.Forster, Gros, Lachs, Nagendra Singh, Ruda, Mosler, Oda, Ago,
El-Enan, Sette-Camara.Baxter, juges.
CONTRE : MM. Morozov etTarazi, juges.

3. A l'unanimité,

Décideque le Gouvernement de la République islamique d'Iran doit
prendre immédiatement toutes mesures pour remédier à la situation qui
résulte des événementsdu 4 novembre 1979et de leurs suites, et à cette
fin :

a) doit faire cesser iimmédiatementla détention illicite du chargé d'af-
faires, d'autres me:mbresdu personnel diplomatiqueet consulaire des
Etats-Unis et d'autres ressortissants des Etats-Unis détenus en otages
en Iran, et doit assurer la libération immédiatede toutes ces personnes
sans exception et lesremettre à la puissanceprotectrice (article 45de la
convention de Vieinnede 1961sur les relations diplomatiques) ;(b) must ensure that al1 the said persons have the necessary means of
leaving Iranian territory, including means of transport ;

(c) must immediately place in the hands of the protecting Power the
premises, property, archives and documents of the United States
Embassy in Tehran and of its Consulates in Iran ;

4. Unanimously,
Decides that no member of the United States diplomatic or consular
staff may be kept in Iran to be subjected to any form ofjudicial proceed-

ings or to participate in them as a witness ;

5. By twelve votes to three,

Decides that the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran isunder an
obligation to make reparation to the Government of the United States of
America for the injury caused to the latter by the events of 4 November
1979 and what followed from these events ;

IN FAVOUR : PresidentSirHumphreyWaldock ; Vice-PresidentElias ;Judges
Forster,Gros, Nagendra Singh,Ruda, Mosler,Oda, Ago,El-Erian,Sette-
Camara and Baxter.
AGAINST :Judges Lachs,Morozovand Tarazi.

6. By fourteen votes to one,

Decides that theform and amount of such reparation, failing agreement
between the Parties, shall be settled by the Court, and reserves for this
purpose the subsequent procedure in the case.

IN FAVOUR : PresidentSirHumphreyWaldock ;Vice-PresidentElias ;Judges
Forster, Gros, Lachs,Nagendra Singh,Ruda, Mosler,Tarazi,Oda, Ago,
El-Erian, Sette-Camaraand Baxter.
AGAINST :Judge Morozov.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at
the PeacePalace, The Hague, this twenty-fourth day of May,one thousand
nine hundred and eighty, in three copies,one of whichwill beplaced in the
archives of theCourt, and the others transmitted to theGovernment of the
United States of America and the Government of the Islamic Republic of
Iran, respectively.

(Signed) Humphrey WALDOCK,
President.

(Signed) S. AQUARONE,
Registrar.b) doit assurer à toutes les personnes en question les moyens, notamment
les moyens de transport, qui leur sont nécessairespour pouvoir quitter
le territoire iranien

c) doit remettre immédiatement à la puissance protectrice les locaux,
biens, archives et documents de l'ambassade des Etats-Unis àTéhéran
et de leurs consulats en Iran ;

4. A l'unanimité,

Décide qu'aucun membre du personnel diplomatique et consulaire des
Etats-Unis ne peut êtreretenu en Iran afin d'être soumis à une forme
quelconque de procé,durejudiciaire ou d'y participer en qualité de
témoin ;

5. Par douze voix contre trois,

Décide que le Gouv~:rnementde la République islamiqued'Iran est tenu
envers le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amériquede l'obligation de
réparerlepréjudice causé à celui-cipar lesévénements du 4 novembre 1979
et leurs suites;

POUR : Sir Humphrey Waldock, Président; M. Elias, Vice-Président;
MM. Forster, Gros, Nagendra Singh,Ruda, Mosler,Oda, Ago, El-Enan,
Sette-Camara, Baxter,juges.
CONTRE :MM.Lachs, Morozovet Tarazi, juges.

6. Par quatorze voix contre une,
Décide que lesformes et lemontant de cetteréparation seront réglép sar
la Cour, au cas où lesparties ne pourraient semettre d'accord à ce sujet, et

réserve à cet effet la suite de la procédure.
POUR : Sir Humphrey Waldock, Président; M. Elias, Vice-Président;
MM.Forster, Gros, Lachs,Nagendra Singh,Ruda, Mosler,Tarazi, Oda,
Ago, El-Erian, Sette-Camara,Baxter, juges.

CONTRE :M. Morozov, juge.

Fait en anglais et eri français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au palais de la
Paix, à La Haye, le vingt-quatre mai mil neuf cent quatre-vingt, en trois
exemplaires dont l'un restera déposé auxarchives de la Cour et dont les
autres seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement des Etats-Unis
d'Amériqueet au Goiuvemement de la République islamique d'Iran.

Le Président,

(Signé) Humphrey WALDOCK.
Le Greffier,

(Signé) S. AQUARONE. Judge LACHS appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the
Court.

Judges Mo~ozov and TARAZaIppend dissenting opinions to the Judg-
ment of the Court.

(InitialiedH.W.

(InitialiedS.A. PERSONNIELDIPLOMATIQUE ET CONSULAIRE(ARRÊT) 46

M. LACHSj,uge, joint à l'arrêlt'exposéde son opinion individuelle.

MM.Mo~ozov et TARAZjIu ,ges,joignent àl'arrêles exposés deleur
opinion dissidente.

(Paraphé)H.W.
(Paraphé)S.A.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 24 May 1980

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